Pre-feasibility study of a
Waste to Energy plant in
Santiago de Chile
Marko Amovic & Fredrik Johansson
Master of Science Thesis in
Energy Engineering.
Umeå Institute of Technology
(löpnr. som tilldelas)
1
Abstract
Chile is facing big challenges concerning electricity production. At present, the majority of the
electricity is produced from imported fossil fuels. Renewable sources such as biomass, wind power,
solar power, hydropower etc. are considered among the Chilean politicians as the future for a
sustainable society.
In Santiago where more than a third of all Chileans live, 6 million people, there is a huge need of
electricity and thermal energy. Surrounded by the Andes, situated in a valley, the city is heavy
polluted from traffic and heavy industries.
The population of Santiago daily generates huge amounts of waste that is mainly deposited in
sanitary landfills around the city. In the waste there is an unexploited energy potential that has been
studied in this thesis. The main objective has been to make a prefeasibility study of a Waste to
Energy plant in Santiago. An industrial area in the municipality of Lampa has been chosen as location
for the plant. It would, beside electric power, produce steam and district cooling to eight surrounding
industries.
Economical calculations were made on a 60 MW plant and a 100 MW plant. The optimization has
been made in the program, What´s best. The economical study showed that a 60 MW-plant would
not be profitable. A 100 MW plant would be profitable with a pay-back time of 12 years and a
positive NPV.
An environmental study has been made showing that a 100 MW plant would fulfill the region’s air
quality laws and contribute to reductions of SO2, NOx, PM, VOC and CO in the air. The greenhouse
gases would annually be reduced by 196 935 tonnes CO2eq.
2
Table of Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 2
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... 3
1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................... 8
1.1 Background of the cooperation between Borlänge Energi/IVL and Chile .................................... 8
1.2 Purpose.......................................................................................................................................... 9
1.3 Limitations ..................................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Announcements ............................................................................................................................ 9
1.5 Method ........................................................................................................................................ 10
2 Background ......................................................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Chile ............................................................................................................................................. 11
2.1.1 Facts...................................................................................................................................... 11
2.1.2 Economics and social affairs ................................................................................................. 11
2.1.3 Santiago ................................................................................................................................ 11
2.2 Environmental issues................................................................................................................... 11
2.2.1 Climate goals for Chile .......................................................................................................... 13
2.3 Waste Treatment......................................................................................................................... 15
2.3.1 History .................................................................................................................................. 15
2.3.2 Waste disposition ................................................................................................................. 15
2.3.3 Waste generation ................................................................................................................. 16
2.3.4 Waste Collection................................................................................................................... 17
2.3.5 Recycling ............................................................................................................................... 17
2.3.6 KDM, a waste management company ................................................................................. 18
2.3.7 Waste Economy .................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.8 Waste Characterization ........................................................................................................ 19
2.4 Industrial situation ...................................................................................................................... 21
2.5 Chilean laws for emissions from incineration ............................................................................. 22
2.5.1 Laws for Metropolitana Region ............................................................................................ 22
2.6 Energy Industries and Electricity ................................................................................................. 23
2.6.1 Electricity SING and SIC ........................................................................................................ 23
2.6.2 Petroleum ............................................................................................................................. 25
2.6.3 Coal ....................................................................................................................................... 25
2.6.4 Hydroelectric power ............................................................................................................. 25
3
2.6.5 Natural gas............................................................................................................................ 26
2.6.6 Renewable energy resources ............................................................................................... 27
2.6.7 Nuclear power ...................................................................................................................... 28
3 Waste incineration ............................................................................................................................. 29
3.1 Incinerators ................................................................................................................................. 29
3.1.1 Reciprocating grate .............................................................................................................. 29
3.1.2 Fluidized bed ........................................................................................................................ 30
3.2 Flue gas cleaning ......................................................................................................................... 31
3.2.1 Particles ................................................................................................................................ 31
3.2.2 Cyclones................................................................................................................................ 31
3.2.3 Electrostatic precipitators .................................................................................................... 32
3.2.4 Electro venturi filter ............................................................................................................. 32
3.2.5 Fabric filters .......................................................................................................................... 32
3.2.6 NID-reactor and Turbosorp .................................................................................................. 32
3.2.7 NOx reduction ....................................................................................................................... 33
3.2.8 SOx, HCl, furan and dioxin..................................................................................................... 34
3.2.9 System of measuring flue gases in Sweden.......................................................................... 35
3.3 Comparison with Swedish WTE Plants ........................................................................................ 35
3.4 Water treatment ......................................................................................................................... 38
3.4.1 pH-neutralization ................................................................................................................. 38
3.4.2 Ammonia cupellation ......................................................................................................... 38
3.4.3 Precipitation........................................................................................................................ 38
3.4.4 Flocculation ......................................................................................................................... 38
3.4.5 Sedimentation ..................................................................................................................... 39
3.4.6 Filtration .............................................................................................................................. 39
3.5 Cooling towers ............................................................................................................................. 39
4 Steam Production ............................................................................................................................... 41
4.1 Boiler ........................................................................................................................................... 41
4.2 Steam accumulator ..................................................................................................................... 42
4.3 Energy distribution ...................................................................................................................... 43
4.4 The use of steam in industrial processes .................................................................................... 43
5 District cooling .................................................................................................................................... 43
5.1 Background District Cooling ........................................................................................................ 43
5.2 Solutions ...................................................................................................................................... 44
4
5.3 Types of Absorption Cooling Machines (ACM) ............................................................................ 44
5.3.1 Steam fired ACM .................................................................................................................. 45
5.3.2 Ammonia .............................................................................................................................. 46
5.4 Distribution of district cooling ..................................................................................................... 47
6 Results ................................................................................................................................................ 48
6.1 Technique .................................................................................................................................... 48
6.1.1 Incinerator ............................................................................................................................ 48
6.1.2 Flue Gas Cleaning ................................................................................................................. 49
6.1.3 Location ................................................................................................................................ 50
6.1.4. Steam cycle .......................................................................................................................... 51
6.1.5 Distribution ........................................................................................................................... 52
6.1.6 Cooling tower ....................................................................................................................... 57
6.1.7 Energy balances .................................................................................................................... 58
6.1.8 Efficiencies ............................................................................................................................ 60
6.2 Economy ...................................................................................................................................... 61
6.2.1 Investment............................................................................................................................ 61
6.2.2 Operational Costs ................................................................................................................. 61
6.2.3 Results Carbon Credits ......................................................................................................... 62
6.2.4 Landfill versus Incineration................................................................................................... 63
6.2.5 Incomes ................................................................................................................................ 63
6.2.6 Profitability ........................................................................................................................... 64
6.3 The environmental impact .......................................................................................................... 67
6.3.1 Pollutants.............................................................................................................................. 67
6.3.2 Greenhouse gases ................................................................................................................ 68
7 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................................... 70
8 Discussion ........................................................................................................................................... 71
8.1 Politics and social aspects ........................................................................................................... 71
8.2 Climate and environmental ......................................................................................................... 72
8.3 Waste improvements from an incineration point of view .......................................................... 72
8.4 Uncertainties ............................................................................................................................... 72
8.5 Other Solutions............................................................................................................................ 72
8.6 Future .......................................................................................................................................... 73
9 The Authors ........................................................................................................................................ 74
10 References ........................................................................................................................................ 76
5
11 Appendix........................................................................................................................................... 79
Appendix 1......................................................................................................................................... 80
Appendix 2......................................................................................................................................... 81
Appendix 3......................................................................................................................................... 84
Appendix 4......................................................................................................................................... 85
Appendix 5......................................................................................................................................... 87
Appendix 6......................................................................................................................................... 88
Appendix 7......................................................................................................................................... 88
Appendix 8......................................................................................................................................... 89
Appendix 9......................................................................................................................................... 92
Appendix 10....................................................................................................................................... 95
Appendix 11....................................................................................................................................... 98
Appendix 12..................................................................................................................................... 100
Appendix 13..................................................................................................................................... 101
Appendix 14..................................................................................................................................... 102
6
Abbreviations
SNCR – Selective non-catalytic reaction
SCR – Selective catalytic reaction
ESP – Electrostatic precipitator
NPV – Net present value
IRR – Internal rate of return
UN – United Nations
IVL – Swedish Environmental Research Institute
WTE – Waste to energy
MSW – Municipal solid waste
RM – Region Metropolitana
CONAMA – National Environmental Commission
WHO – World health organization
EMERES – Empresa Metropolitana de Residuos
ACM – Absorption cooling machine
AACM – Ammonia driven absorption cooling machine
COP – Coefficient of performance
GHG – Greenhouse gas
PPDA – Plan to prevent the contamination of the atmosphere
BFB – Bubbling fluidized bed
CFB – Circulating fluidized bed
FG – Flue gas
SIC – Sistema Interconectado Central
SING – Sistema Interconectado Norte Grande
ERNC – Renewable energy sources, non conventional
CDM – Clean development mechanism
UF – Unit of account used in Chile
NaOH – Sodium hydroxide
NH3 – Ammonia
CH4 - Methane
N2O – Nitrous oxide
SO2 – Sulfur dioxide
NOx – Nitrogen oxide
PM – Particulate matter
VOC – Volatile organic compound
CO – Carbon monoxide
CO2eq – Carbon dioxide equivalent
CO2 – Carbon dioxide
ERNC- None-conventional renewable resources
7
1 Introduction
1.1 Background of the cooperation between Borlänge Energi/IVL and Chile
Borlänge Energi and IVL, Swedish Environmental Research Institute, have participated in
development of waste management practises in Sweden; Borlänge Energi as responsible for waste
management in Borlänge municipality, and IVL as consultant and development partner in several
municipalities. The two companies have been collaborating, since many years, in international
projects in different areas of environment, specifically in the area of solid waste management.
Since 1990, Borlänge Energi has been involved in municipal development projects in Chile and has
facilitated annual study visits to Swedish municipalities from Chilean municipalities. These visits have
taken place in connection with SIDA-financed development projects in areas such as municipal waste
treatment, decentralisation actions and environmental work. Waste management has been the focal
point in all projects, due to the fact that it is the most concrete environmental matter where the
municipalities have direct responsibility.
In January 2005 Borlänge Energi and IVL organised a one-day workshop in Santiago. Representatives
from 25 national, regional and local organisations as well as companies working with environmental
issues participated. The purpose of the workshop was to identify their interest in participating in
training courses, which will aim at providing the municipalities and regions with tools for the
development of sustainable systems for solid waste management.
The workshop served as a forum for an open and interesting exchange of ideas and opinions of what
was needed to develop, in Chile, in the area of solid waste management. There was a great interest
for continuous exchange in principally two areas:
Development of a system for sustainable solid waste management, with focus on material
recycling and energy recovery.
Management of hazardous waste.
After this workshop and until now, several projects have been developed between: the AEPA which is
an association of companies and professionals with an environmental interest and IVL/Borlänge
Energi. The main projects are:
1. Feasibility study, Establish an incineration plant for waste with energy recovery.
2. Study around different methods of handling sludge.
3. Establish an Environmental Centre between Sweden – Chile in Santiago.
8
1.2 Purpose
An increasing amount of waste and a need of new energy resources in Chile, there are several
projects about how to develop sustainable systems of treating the waste with energy recovery.
Today all waste from the municipalities of Santiago is put on landfills and only a small amount is
recycled.
This project is aiming to investigate the possibility of incinerating the waste in a waste to energy
(WTE) plant. The objectives are:
•
•
•
Reduction of the amount of waste that is deposited on landfill.
Generation of energy from a new source.
Reduction of emissions that contribute to the greenhouse effect.
By using waste heat from a plant for distributing steam and district cooling it is possible to substitute
energy resources with great environmental impact, to more climate-smart and energy-efficient
solutions.
1.3 Limitations
This thesis aims to present a possible solution for taking care of municipal waste in a waste to energy
plant that delivers steam, district cooling and electric power to the industries in located in the
northern municipalities of Region Metropolitana (RM), Quilicura and Lampa. The project also
includes a presentation of a possible solution of grate, flue gas cleaning and a system for distributing
the energy. It does not include any details about connecting the plant to the electricity grid, water
treatment before entering the plant and details about water treatment after the plant.
1.4 Announcements
We would like to thank:
•
•
•
•
•
•
KDM: Arturo Arias, Martine Oddou, Consuelo Vargas, Hans Kramer and the rest of the very
friendly staff who helped us on site in Chile.
Ronny Arnberg at Borlänge Energy who has encouraged and given us good contacts and
information.
Jörgen Carlsson at Umeå Energy who has supervised us about the technical part of the
thesis.
Roberto Broschek at the embassy of Sweden in Santiago and Anna-Karin Gauding who
helped us getting started in Chile.
Our supervisors at the University of Umeå, Anders Åstrand and Robert Eklund.
And, of course, all the helpful people at the different suppliers and industries who have
supplied us with information and assistance.
9
1.5 Method
The first part of this thesis was to find information from various Swedish WTE-plants. Different types
of grates, flue gas cleaning systems and emissions from existing plants applied in Sweden have been
studied.
Later on a three months long trip was made to Santiago de Chile where KDM, a waste management
company, provided us with information concerning; the laws, waste management system, potential
customers (industries) and the Chilean system in general.
A contact was established with several industries and interviews concerning their use of steam
and/or district cooling in the process were made.
The third part of the study was to resume the information from the industries and contact suppliers
of grates, flue gas cleaning systems, turbines, pipes etc. These suppliers have provided the project
with technical and economical information of components satisfying the Chilean laws and the need
of energy in the area.
All data have been assembled and an economical optimization has been made in the program,
What´s best. When all the simulations were made, an analysis was made to present the best
economical and environmental solution for a WTE-plant.
10
2 Background
2.1 Chile
2.1.1 Facts
Population: 16,7 millions
Capital: Santiago de Chile
Government: Republic
Language: Spanish
Chile is a big country limited by the
Pacific in the west and the Andes in the
east. The highest density of population
is in the central parts of the country
with the capital Santiago situated in
the interior (population of 6 millions)
and the twin cities of Viña del Mar
(population 287 000) and Valparaiso
(population 265 000) at the coast1.
2.1.2 Economics and social affairs
The Chilean economical development
has been strong since the fall of the
dictatorship and the GNP/capita is now
Figure 1. Map showing South America. Chile marked red. (Wikipedia, 2009)
9884 US$ and a national growth of
5,1% during 2007 which is the highest
among the countries of Latin America2.
Main export products are copper, fish,
agricultural and forestry products. The copper industry is the main export and represents more than
half of the Chilean export and the incomes are placed in funds, similar to the Norwegian oil fund. The
rate of poor people is 13,7% and the rate of unemployment is 7%2.
2.1.3 Santiago
Santiago has a population of 6 million and is situated in Region Metropolitana (RM). The city is
centered in a valley with the Andes in the east and the Cordillera de la Costa in the west. River
Mapucho divides the city in two as it floats from the Andes to the Pacific. Although the Andes receive
great amounts of rain and snow, the valley is dry with little rain, especially during the summer
months. The altitude is about 800 meters and the coast line is about 120 km away.
2.2 Environmental issues
There are industry areas surrounding the city at all directions except on the eastern side where the
residential areas are located all the way up on the slopes of the lower Andes. Because of the
1
2
(Wikipedia, 2009)
(Embassy of Sweden, Santiago de Chile, 2008)
11
geography of the city the valley has big problems with air pollution, smog. The main contaminators
are industries and the traffic.
Ever since the end of the 80’s Santiago has been aware of the air pollutions and the effects of these.
The smog can be seen over city on clear days as a mist hanging above the valley.
Chile’s first environmental law was set in 1994 and CONAMA, the National Environmental
Commission, was founded as superintending authority. The CONAMA is responsible for controls and
look after that the polluters maintain under their permitted levels. Their responsibility is mostly
industries but there are other sources of pollution such as vehicles and residential burning of wood.
The most important pollutants for Region Metropolitana are particle matter (PM), ozone and carbon
monoxide. But also NO, SOX, and NH4 are big polluters of the air.
Santiago was 75 % above the Chilean limits of air quality standard in 2004. Ozone was almost twice
as high as the limit and carbon monoxide was 80 % above the air quality standard. According to UN’s
World Health Organization, WHO, Santiago is one of the most polluted cities in the world. The
combination of big polluters, the climate and the geographical surroundings make the situation as
bad as it is.
There are programs that intend to improve the poor air quality including upgrading the public
transportation system with low emitting busses and expanding the metro system. The valley is dry
and most of the annual rain falls during the winter months.
There are two phenomena that contribute to the poor air quality and they are depending on season.
•
In summer there is a wind that blows down from the Andes, but because of the depth of the
valley the wind tends to sweep above the city, never being able to stir “the pot” as shown in
figure 2.
•
In winter the city suffers from inversion, which basically means that heavy, cold air is
gathered at the bottom of the valley and forms a seal over the whole valley, capturing the
pollutants and makes it impossible to dilute the polluted air as shown in figure 2.
There has been estimations of that the pollution causes 1000 deaths per year.
3
Figure 2. The figure shows the two phenomena’s for Santiago that contributes to the pollution of air .
Through the years the law has been reformed and in 1998 CONAMA started to analyze the content of
the smog and a specified plan for Santiago and Region Metropolitana, called Plan de Provencion y
3
(Conama, 2007)
12
Descontaminacíon Atmosférica (PPDA) was formed. After these actions, levels of pollutions
decreased for several years, but from the year of 2000 the levels began to increase again.
It has been actions against the pollution such as:
• Developing the metro system.
• Projects forcing the bus companies to install particle filters as well as encouraging the owners
to change their fleet of buses to vehicles with low emissions known as “Euro 3 class”4.
• Decreasing pollution from the industry by implying specific laws about how much industries
can release in to air.
Currently there is a system of controlling the level of pollutions in Santiago. This system is built on
different stations that have been placed around the city that measure the level of different gases in
the air. There are three different levels of contamination that are critical: Warning, potential
emergency and emergency. They all have their own plan of restrictions that shall be taken. This
includes shutting down certain industries and banning vehicles with a certain plate number to drive
during the days when the amounts of pollutants in the air are too high.
2.2.1 Climate goals for Chile
Chile has signed the Kyoto agreement and ratified the protocol in 2002, but has no real values of how
much they shall reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases like for instance the countries of EU. The
reason for that is that Chile is one of the non-Annex I-countries in the Kyoto agreement. But by being
a part of that agreement it is still possible to contribute to the development of emission reducing
projects.
There are three different basic mechanisms in the Kyoto agreement, which all are aiming for
reduction of greenhouse gases (GHG).
• The trading of emissions is basically a mechanism where countries are assigned a specified
emission value. If they emit under the specified level it is possible to sell the rest.
• Clean development mechanism (CDM) aim to stimulate new projects that reduce the
greenhouse gases for which the country earns saleable credits.
• Joint implementation (JI) is similar to CDM but is addressed to developed countries that do
projects in other developed countries that contribute to lower emissions.
The Kyoto agreement expires in 2012 and a new agreement and actions plans will hopefully be set
before this year. The calculations in this project are based on the Kyoto agreement and its system for
buying and selling carbon credits.
There is also a national program where power production from none-conventional renewable
resources, ERNC is stimulated. This program aims to push the electricity producers to build more
ERNC-plants and only projects connected to the grid after the beginning of 2007 is accepted. The law
will be set in action the year 2010 and will then last for 25 years until 2035. The goal is that at least
5% of the energy produced comes from ERNC the year of 2010 and then an increase of 0,5% each
year will be made until 2020 when the limit becomes constant at 10% until the end, 20355.
4
5
(Sistema Nacional de Información Ambiental, 2006)
(Gobierno de Chile, Comisíon Nacional de Energía, 2008)
13
If the companies cannot fulfill the limit of 5% they will be obligated to pay a fine of 40$ for every
MWh that is missing6.
6
(Arias, 2008)
14
2.3 Waste Treatment
2.3.1 History
In Chile the last decades have changed the treatment of waste significantly. All MSW (municipality
solid waste) was deposited, unrestrainedly in various dumps all around the country until 1990. First
in 1994 a law was implemented establishing that MSW must be deposited in sanitary landfills7. This
led to a shutdown of many small landfills. Today the majority of MSW collected in Metropolitana
region is deposited in sanitary landfills.
2.3.2 Waste disposition
In Region Metropolitana the waste management is treated by the municipalities. There are two
separate organizations that handle waste disposal, Cerros de Renca and EMERES (Empresa
Metropolitana De Residuos). At 2006 EMERES was represented by 21 municipalities and Cerros de
Renca of 248. Beside the organizations there are some independent municipalities. Majority of the
municipalities in Cerro de Renca are situated in the north part of the region while EMERES cover the
south parts. The contracts between the organizations and waste depositing companies last for 16
years and the organizations or municipalities will have to renew it at 20119.
Of all MSW collected, 98% is deposited in three landfills; Loma Los Colorado (Til Til), Santa Marta
(Talagante) and Santiago Poniente (Maipú). The remaining 2 % has been deposited in a recently
closed landfill, Popeta (Melipilla) and in Alhué10, see Figure 3.
Figure 3. Actual landfills and transfer stations in RM. The transfer station in Quilicura belongs to Loma Los Colorados and
the transfer station in Puerta Sur belongs to Santa Marta.
7
(Estevez, 2006)
(Bengtson, 2006)
9
(Arias, 2008)
10
(CONAMA)
8
15
The depositing in RM which consists of 52 municipalities, is divided by three entrepreneurs. KDM in
Quilicura, contract with Cerro de Renca, controls about 60 % of the waste quantities while Consorcio
Santa Marta and Coinca Pro-Activa control the rest.
-Loma los Colorados
The biggest landfill in the region opened in March 1996. It is located in a desert at the municipality of
Til Til, 73 km north of the city. KDM is the possessor and the waste is transported to the landfill by
train from a transfer station that is situated in Quilicura. The landfill receives annually about 1 650
000 tonnes (Sweden deposited 1 994 000 tonnes year 200711) and is expected to reach the final
capacity in 2052.
-Santa Marta
Consorcio Santa Marta possesses the landfill that is located in Talagante, 12 km south of the city. The
landfill started its operations in April 1992 and receives annually about 690 000 tonnes of waste.
Most of the waste is transported from a transfer station, Puerta Sur, in San Bernardo. The final
capacity is expected to be reached in 2022.
-Santiago Poniente
The municipality of Maipú is the location for Santiago Poniente. Since October 1992 the landfill has
received about 335 000 tonnes annually. Coinca Pro-Activa is possessor of the landfill and it´s
estimated final capacity is expected to be reached in 2025.
2.3.3 Waste generation
As a consequence of a higher standard of living and an increase in population, the amounts of waste
have increased. A prospect made by CONAMA, National Environmental Commission, shows an
annual average waste increase of 3.5 %. This corresponded to 1.1 kg per capita daily (2005). A recent
study made by KDM shows that the amount was 1.3 kg per capita daily (2007). The study covered the
waste collected by the company, mainly municipalities in northern parts of the region. This part of
the region includes many rich municipalities that supposedly generate more waste than the average.
The amount of waste and the prospect made by CONAMA is shown in figure 4 below.
Daily amounts and prospects of MSW in Region
Metropolitana
Ton/Day
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
Figure 4. The annual waste increase in the region and a prospect until 2020.
11
(Avfallsverige)
16
2.3.4 Waste Collection
The system of waste collection is separated from waste disposition. There are more actors that offer
municipalities’ waste collection.
ction. All the contracts are individually signed by the municipalities and last
for 5-6
6 years. Collection service differs between the municipalities depending on the actual contract.
The waste is collected between two times weekly to daily12.
As a result off the difference in the contracts the price for collection varies a lot, in 2006 the price
varied between 10-25
25 USD/tonne13.
All produced MSW is left in the streets, generally in black plastic bags, in front of the households.
Bigger buildings have their own
n storage rooms where the waste is gathered until it is picked up.14
2.3.5 Recycling
Presently, the status of recycling in RM and Chile is undeveloped. There are some recycling stations,
in the municipality of Vitacura for example, but there is a general
general lack of interest among the
population for recycling. Chilean government gives a sum every year to the municipalities for health,
education, waste management etc. A resident do not need to pay for the waste treatment as long as
the value of the residencee of the household do not exceed about 10000 €. About 80% of the
residents do not have a residence that exceeds this value. As a consequence, most municipalities use
money from the government to pay for waste management and the resident cannot see the benefit
bene
of recycling because it does not affect his/her economy15.
Sweden, household waste
Combustion
Combustion46%
46%
Depositing
Depositing
4%
4%
Chile
Recycling
9%
Hazardous
Hazardous
Waste
Waste
1%
1%
Recycling
Recycling
49%
49%
Depositing
91%
Figure 5. Comparison between the waste management in Chile and Sweden.
Investigations made by CONAMA shows that about 9 % of the waste is recycled16 while 49% is
recycled in Sweden as shown in figure 5. The majority of the recycling in Chile is made by scavengers
scavenge
that gather papers, glass, metals and plastics from homes and businesses. The collected material is
bought by an informal sector that sells the material to various recycling companies.17
12
(Arias, 2008)
(Estevez, 2006)
14
(Oddou, 2008)
15
(Arias, 2008)
16
(CONAMA)
17
(Estevez, 2006)
13
17
2.3.6 KDM, a waste management company
A projected plant is planned to be situated in the
northern part of the region. The major part of the waste
in this region is treated by the company, KDM. The head
office of the company is situated next to the transfer
station in Quilicura. KDM is responsible for 1 650 000
tonne per year which represents about 60 % of all waste
in the region18. (Comparison: Amount of waste
incinerated in Dåvamyran, Umeå 2007 was 158 647
tonnes19). During a day almost 850 garbage trucks arrive
to the transfer station. Inside the station the waste is
compressed to a density of 0,55-0,60 tonnes per m3 in
containers with a capacity of 28 tonnes20 as shown in
figure 6. The filled containers are placed on a train that
transport the waste 60 km north to the landfill. Between
8- 10 trains with 25 or 26 wagons operate the distance
daily21.
Figure 6. Compression of waste in Quilicura.
2.3.6.1 KDM:s waste projects
Since March 2007 a system for capturing of biogas operates at the landfill. About 50 % of the biogas
produced is captured. The biogas that consists of methane gas (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) is
incinerated and turned into CO2. Purpose of the system is environmental as methane gas is 21 times
stronger as greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide and profitable as KDM receives carbon credits that
they are able to sell.
The big investment in the biogas system at the landfill has followed the Kyoto protocol. By gathering
the biogas and incinerate it, a reduction of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is attained. These
reductions are sold as certificates of emission on a worldwide market.
There is today no energy extraction from the system but small turbines are about to be installed
generating the electric power that will be sold to the electricity grid. The initial installed electricity
will be 2 MW and will start in the beginning of 2009. An expansion of the system is planned up to 24
MW.
Another actual big project of the company is to open a recycling station at the landfill. Last year the
prices of raw materials have increased which has made the recycling profitable for the company.
Products that are planned to be recycled and sold are; PET and other plastics, metal, paper,
cardboard, glass and tetra pack. Organic compound of the waste would be composted or digested
and the rest would stay in the landfill. In the beginning, 500 tonnes/day (10 % of total) are planned to
be recycled. The recycling station would be operated manually accept for the metallic separators.
18
(Oddou, 2008)
(Umeå Energi)
20
(Estevez, 2006)
21
(KDM, 2008)
19
18
2.3.7 Waste Economy
Chile has low gate fees for waste disposal. For disposal the municipalities have to pay 9,4 €/tonne
while industries have individual contracts depending on the waste content and the quantity22. About
half of the cost is covering the maintenance of the transfer station and the railway while the rest are
landfill costs. A comparison has been made with other countries concerning the gate fees. In
Argentina (Tandil) and Colombia (Cali) the fees are 10,7 €/tonne respectively 11 €/tonne while it is 60
€/tonne in France23. As a result of the low gate fees in Chile, KDM and other companies handling
waste need to find other ways of income.
There are several possible ways of increasing the incomes:
•
•
•
Recycling stations. The companies are able to sell material recycled like; glass, aluminum,
metals, cardboards, paper etc.
Biogas capturing. By capturing biogas from the landfills, electricity is produced that can be
sold to the electricity grid. As a reduction of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is attained,
it is as well possible to sell carbon credits.
Waste incineration. Incineration of the waste would produce energy in form of electricity,
steam and district cooling. Beside those incomes, carbon credits would be sold and an
income from production of green energy would be received. Disposition of waste would be
reduced which will lead to smaller landfill costs.
There is also an income from ERNC from the government.
2.3.8 Waste Characterization
Waste that would be used as fuel would belong to KDM. As a result of that a characterization has
been made of the MSW at KDM:s transfer station in Quilicura and the result is shown in table 1.
About 80 % of all waste at the station is from households, the rest is from industries. A
characterization of the industry waste has not been done because of the big variety in composition
between the industries.
Table 1. Comparison of the wastes dry substance in Sweden and Santiago
Material\Country
Sweden [mass %]
Organics
Plastics
Paper
Glass
Metals
Textiles
Other
40-50
5-10
20-30
3-6
3-6
0-1
5-10
24
KDM characterization, Santiago [mass %]
50,12
10,64
17,42**
3,85
1,11
3,61
13,25
**=Cardboard and tetrapack included
22
(Arias, 2008)
(KDM, 2008)
24
(Återvinningscentralen)
23
19
45 % humidity while Santiago´s waste has a humidity of 48,83 %. 25
MSW in Sweden consists of 30-45
A more exact composition of the MSW in Santiago is shown in figure 7 below.
Waste composition
% Humidity
%Organic degradable kitchen waste
% Garden waste
% Paper
% Cardboard and tetrapack
% Plastics
% diapers and sanitary towel
% Rubber and leather
% Glass
% Metals
% Wood
% Textil
% Dust and ash
% Mixed*
1,38%
6,76%
2,20%
25,65%
48,83%
51,17%
5,45%
3,17%
0,57%
0,93%
1,84%
0,30%
0,64%
0,17%
1,97%
Figure 7: The figure shows the composition
composition of MSW in KDM:s transfer station. The diagram to the left shows the
composition between the humidity and dry substance in the waste and the diagram to the right shows the dry
substance composition.
* = Bones, fruit
ruit pit, batteries, ceramics, paint, drugs and cosmetics
2.3.8.1 Heating value
From the characterization in the transfer station, the heating value for MSW has been estimated.
Heating value is calculated by a model built for RFV (Avfall Sverige) to 10 200 kJ/kg (2,83 MWh/ton)
MWh/
and is presented in appendix
ppendix 1. This calculated heating value is calculated just for MSW which
represents 80 % of all waste at the transfer station. In general the waste from industries has a higher
heating value which would increase the total heating value. (Comparison with Sweden)
A WTE-plant
plant using a reciprocating grate incinerator can operate without
without any additional fuel at 6500
26
kJ/kg , thus no additional fuel is needed. The plants in Sweden mix the MSW with industrial waste
each time
me which increases the calorific value. Same solution would be applied on a plant in Santiago
without any extra cost needed.
.
25
26
(Återvinningscentralen)
(Sundsvalls Energi AB)
20
2.4 Industrial situation
The Metropolitana Region had year 2004 more than 37 industrial districts. Amount of the industries
has increased year by year and is still increasing. Around the city of Santiago there is a highway ring,
called Anillo Américo Vespucio. This ring is marked in red in the figure 8 below. Cardinal directions
are as well shown in the figure. Marked in blue
are western parts of the city; in purple northern,
in brown eastern and in green southern parts.
KDM:s transfer station and the railway heading
towards the landfill are marked in black. The
distribution of the industrial districts in the region
is concentrated to northern and western parts of
the region.
Figure 8: Map of Region Metropolitana.
In the east, towards the Andes, many
municipalities consist of middle and upper class
families, which is one of the reasons for the lack
of industries in those parts of the region.
87 % of the industries are situated north and
west of the city, as shown in the figure 9.
Figure 9: Location of the industrial districts in RM.
Some benefits and reasons are mentioned below:
•
•
•
•
Short distance to the national airport
Short distance to the highway that lead to the sea and the main harbors
Long distance to the urban areas in the east
No restrictions for industrial development that earlier existed in southern parts.
Figure 10 shows that a majority of the industries are
situated outside the ring of Américo Vespucio. There
are several reasons to that; Industries inside have
limited space disposable, the prices are higher, bigger
environmental problems and less traffic outside than
inside which makes the transports easier27.
Figure 10: Location of the industrial districts
considering Anillo Américo Vespucio.
27
(Colliers International, 2004)
21
2.5 Chilean laws for emissions from incineration
The first law concerning the environment was made in 1994. Since then various environmental laws
have been implemented and at the beginning of
2007 a norm was made concerning emissions to air Table 2. A comparison between the
from incineration. This norm (NORMA DE EMISIÓN European and Chilean laws.
3
28
29
Chile
Europe
[mg/Nm ]
PARA INCINERACIÓN Y COINCINERACIÓN) include
PM
30
10
all industries that incinerate any type of fuel. The
3
SO2
50
50
Chilean emission limits are based on mg/Nm
NOx
300
200
where a normal cubic meter (Nm3) corresponds to a
CO
50
50
temperature of 298 K, pressure of 1 atm (11 % O2).
A comparison has been made with actual air
emission limits in Europe and limits for Chile (see
table 2). The law in Europe is especially developed
for waste incineration (DIRECTIVE 2000/76/EC OF
THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT). An Nm3 in Europe
corresponds to a temperature of 273 K and
pressure of 1 atm (11 % O2). Because of the
difference in temperatures of an Nm3 the
significance of the limits will be different. A
transcription of ideal gas law will give following
equation:
்಴೓
்ಶೠ
COT
Cd
Hg
Be
Pb, Zn
As, Co, Ni, Se, Te
Sb, Cr, Mn, V
20
0,1
0,1
0,1
1
1
5
10
0,05
0,05
-
HCl
NH3
HF
Dioxin [ng/m³N]
As----Zn
20
10
10
1
0,1
0,5
2
0,2
7
0,5
(1)
where T is the temperature in K for Europe and Chile. The quota will be about 1,09 . This
normalization would just lead to an even bigger limit difference between Chile and Europe so it has
not been done in Table 2.
2.5.1 Laws for Metropolitana Region
As a consequence of the polluted air in RM a plan to prevent the contamination of the atmosphere in
the region (PPDA) was made. About 9 % of the PM emissions are from combustion processes and
additional 15 % are from other processes in
Table 3. Limits in Metropolitana Region
30
Pollutant
Tonne/Year
industries. Because of that, a law came into effect
PM
10
and restricted the emissions from all new and
SO2
150
existing modified industries. The law is not based
NOx
50
on the size or type of the production from the
CO
100
industry; there is just an annual limit for some of
VOC
100
the pollutants in tonnes/year (see Table 3).
28
(Norma de emisión para incineración y coincineración)
(Directive 2000/76/EC of the European Parliament)
30
(Plan de Prevención y Descontaminación)
29
22
2.6 Energy Industries and Electricity
Chile is today dependent on importing natural gas, petroleum products, coal and the energy
resources are shown in figure 11. Most of the electricity although is produced by hydroelectric power
plants and the industries are the big consumers of natural gas, coal and petroleum products.
Especially the northern part of the country is dependent on natural gas and coal for the mining
industry. The natural gas grid is well developed and was built in the mid 90’s.
Energy consumption Chile 2006. total
344 TWh
Wood
16%
39%
24%
Hydroelectric power
8%
Coal
12%
others
Natural gas
1%
Petrolium
31
Figure 11. The figure shows the distribution of energy consumption .
2.6.1 Electricity SING and SIC
There are four different electricity systems within Chile. Two of them are located in the southern
region and are small. The two largest are SIC (Sistema Interconectado Central) and SING (Sistema
Interconectado Norte Grande).
• The SING grid supports the north part of the country and most of the electricity is generated
by thermal power plants as shown in figure 12. The system only supports 6 % of the
population but because of the big industries such as copper mines it still consumes 28% of
the total produced electricity in the country.
• The SIC grid supports the major cities in the country such as Santiago, Concepción, and the
twin cities of Valparaíso and Viña del Mar. The SIC grid delivers electricity to 92% of the
population and covers the major part of the country32. The majority is produced in hydro
power plants as shown in figure 13.
31
32
(CONAMA, 2008)
(CDEC-SIC, 2006)
23
Electricity production
SIC [%]
Electricityproduction
production
Electricity
SING[%]
[%]
ininSING
0%
0%
7%
7%
34%34%
Hydroelectric
Hydroelectric
power
power
Coal
Coal
26%
17%
Coal
Natural gas
others
others
59%
59%
2%
Hydro power
Natural gas
0%
0% Natural gas
55%
Petroleum
Petrolium
Figure 12. The figure shows the different energy sources for
33
production of electricity in SING .
Figure 13. The figure shows the different
energy sources for production of electricity
31
in SIC
This project will be investigating the situation around Santiago which is a part of the SIC grid.
All grids, producers and distributors are owned by private companies which are both domestic and
international.
Electricity Generated in SIC,
1998-2007
GWh
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
34
Figure 14. The graphs shows the increase of electricity use in the grid .
Due to increasing use of electricity, shown in figure 14, and the shortage of deliveries of natural gas
there are several different projects about developing different new sources of energy and creating
new solutions of importing fuel. Because of the situation in the country, there are many projects
about increasing the capacity of electricity.
33
34
(Ministerio de Energía, 2008)
(Ministerio de Energía, 2008)
24
2.6.2 Petroleum
Petroleum products are the biggest share for consuming energy for the country. The main post of the
petroleum products are used in different types of vehicles but also in industries for producing heat
and electricity. Petroleum products are imported from Argentina, but also Brazil, Nigeria and Angola
supplies the Chilean market. There are also some domestic oil reserves, but still the country is in
need of import for fulfilling the market.
2.6.3 Coal
Coal is used mainly for producing electricity in huge coal power plants. In the SIC system, where
Santiago Region Metropolitana lies, 17 % of the produced electricity comes from coal power plants
as shown in figure 13. Chile produces some coal, but the majority 93% is imported mainly from
Australia, Indonesia and Colombia35. Coal is used as a back up to hydro power so therefore the
consumption tends to vary depending on the supply of water.
Coal consists, just as other fossil fuels, of sulfur and when it is burned sulfuric dioxide will be
created36. It also contributes to the greenhouse effect because the carbon particles that used to be
bounded to the ground are set to the atmosphere.
2.6.4 Hydroelectric power
With the snow filled Andes as a limit to
the east and the ocean to the west, Chile
has good opportunities for hydroelectric
power. The main part (59%) of the
electricity in SIC is produced by
hydroelectric power. But the
hydroelectric power is sensitive to
drought during long periods. This
happened during 1997-1999 which lead
to lack of electricity and power failures.
Today there are projects about building
more hydroelectric power plants in the
south of Chile connected to the SIC grid.
This would increase the production of
electricity by approximately 18 TWh
annually and is planned to be ready in
2017. There is a debate going on about
this project because it will have a severe
impact on the environment and make
two big rivers regulated.
There is also a debate about the need of
diversity in the production of electricity
and that relies upon vulnerable energy
sources. Hydro power is vulnerable to
35
36
(Energy Information Administration, 2006)
(Zevenhoven, 2002)
Figure 15. The figure shows the distribution of annual amount of precipitation
on different latitudes.
25
drought. Another problem is the distribution of energy. Figure 15 shows the distribution of
precipitation over the country where the south receives much more than the centre37. This leads to
big investments and losses in the electricity grid for distributing power from the sparsely populated
south to the heavy populated centre of Chile.
2.6.5 Natural gas
The use of natural gas has increased rapidly since the 1997, which can be seen in figure 16. The
reason for this is the long term agreement with Argentina that would supply Chile’s needs of natural
gas. The government of Chile started to re-arrange its energy politics in the beginning of the 1990’s
because of an increasing need of electricity, higher oil prices and decrease the dependence on hydro
power. Another benefit of natural gas is the low emissions of SO2 so it was also as an effort to
improve the air quality. The first pipelines where ready and started to deliver natural gas from
Argentina in 1997. There are seven pipelines connecting Argentina and Chile along the border
supplying the country with natural gas from north to south.
38
Figure 16. Natural gas flows for Chile during the transfer of importing the natural gas from Argentina .
Today it is one of the foundations in the production of energy in Chile.
In the SING grid it has the biggest post for electric production and for the SIC grid 2% of the electricity
is produced by natural gas which is shown in figure 13.
It is also used in the industrial sector as an energy source and in residential heating.
37
38
(Ministerio de Energía, 2008)
(Ministerio de Energía, 2008)
26
During 2004 Argentina suffered from an energy crisis that lead to less export of natural gas to Chile.
The flow was halved and even shut off completely during two weeks causing lower level of
production and even forcing industries to shut down. After 2004 Argentina has continued not
fulfilling the agreement. This has lead to new projects about importing liquefied gas from Indonesia
and West Africa in huge tankers. The first terminal will be ready during 2009 and is placed in the
central coast of Chile close to Viña del Mar. Because of the huge investments the industry sector
made converting to natural gas for their processes it is of big interest to find other suppliers of
natural gas to the country.
Although Bolivia is a neighbor to Chile and has natural gas reserves that are exported to Brazil and
Argentina, there are likely no possibilities of importing gas from Bolivia. The reasons for that are the
instable political climate in Bolivia and an old war in the end of the 19th century that cut the coast to
the Pacific Ocean for Bolivia. This is still in the Bolivians minds making all kinds of trades between the
countries complicated.
2.6.6 Renewable energy resources
Although Chile has great potential of wind and geothermal energy there are only a few small wind
power plants and no geothermal based energy at all. But there are projects in both sectors that will
increase this post. Figure 17 shows a map where the hottest areas of the globe are marked red. And
Chile is definitely in such areas with volcanoes stretching through the whole country.
39
Figure 17. The figure shows the hot-spots for possibilities of geothermal energy .
Especially wind energy has several big projects that will be start up soon. The biggest wind mill park
consists of 10 mills and is shown in figure 18. There is some resistance against wind power, mostly
from households close to existing wind parks.
39
(Ministerio de Energía, 2008)
27
Figure 18. The windmill park of Canela in the
Coquimbo region. Photo: Fredrik Johansson
2.6.7 Nuclear power
There are no existing nuclear power plants in Chile because of the high seismological activity in the
country with earthquakes on regular basis. The present government has promised that no nuclear
power plants will be built, but still there is an ongoing investigation about the possibilities.
28
3 Waste incineration
Waste is a combined fuel with big difference in composition and calorific value. As a consequence the
demand on incinerator technology differs depending on the composition. Waste used as fuel in
Sweden is a mixture between industrial and municipal solid waste. The composition
(industrial/MSW) differs a lot between the plants and the municipalities.
3.1 Incinerators
There are two types of grates in use. Flue gas cleaning is almost the same for both incinerators and
there is no general difference in the emissions between the systems.
3.1.1 Reciprocating grate
The most common incinerator is a reciprocating grate incinerator. A reciprocating grate incinerator is
very robust, allowing big variations in the composition of the fuel. The waste in Sweden is generally
not separated before it enters a reciprocating grate boiler. Temperature exceeds often 1000 °C inside
the grate. The waste enters the incinerator by a crane in one end of the grate, from where it moves
down over the descending grate. In the other end of the grate there is an ash pit from where the ash
is being removed (see Figure 19). A single reciprocating grate boiler can handle up to 50 tonnes of
waste per hour, and operate 8,000 hours per year with only one scheduled stop for inspection and
maintenance of about one month's duration.40
Figure 19. Incineration of waste in a reciprocating grate.
40
(Carrier, 2008)
29
The air is added in various steps. Part of the combustion air (primary combustion air) is supplied
through the grate from below. This air flow also has the purpose of cooling the grate itself. Cooling is
important for the mechanical strength of the grate, and all new reciprocating grates are also water
cooled internally as shown in figure 19.
Secondary combustion air is supplied into the boiler at high speed through nozzles over the grate in
various levels. It facilitates complete combustion of the flue gases by creating turbulence for better
mixing and by ensuring a surplus of oxygen. A part of the flue gas is recycled and mixed with the
secondary combustion air in these steps.
According to the European Directives for Waste Incineration, incineration plants must be designed to
ensure that the flue gases reach a temperature of at least 850 °C for 2 seconds in order to ensure
proper breakdown of organic toxins. To ensure that there are auxiliary burners installed, generally
using oil as fuel, in case of periods with waste containing low calorific value and during the startup
and turn off.
After the grate, the flue gases are cooled in superheaters, evaporators and economizers where the
heat is transferred to steam. From here the flue gases are passed to a flue gas cleaning system. Fuel
with a heating value between 6,5-19 MJ/kg can be used in a reciprocating grate41.
3.1.2 Fluidized bed
The other form of incinerator used in Sweden is called fluidized bed. The technology do not allow
same variation in the fuel (humidity variations, variations in size of the fuel, allowance of metals) and
some preparations of waste are needed (often mixed with biomass) before the waste enters the
incinerator. These preparations are made to get the fuel more homogenous. There are two types of
fluidized beds in use, BFB (bubbling fluidized bed) and CFB (circulating fluidized bed). Fluidized bed
incinerators can operate with fuels that have a heating value between 7-15 MJ/kg42. The
temperature in the bed is about 850 °C.
3.1.2.1 Bubbling fluidized bed
In the incinerator there is a bed of sand forced by a strong airflow from below. The air seeps through
the sand until a point is reached where the sand particles separate to let the air through and mixing
and churning occurs, thus a fluidized bed is created and the fuel can be added. A BFB operates
normally with smaller amounts of combustion air and the most of the sand is kept in the lower
furnace. Secondary combustion air is added in various levels like ensuring a surplus of oxygen like in a
reciprocating grate. BFB incinerators are produced just up to a size of 35-40 MW in installed effect.
3.1.2.2 Circulating fluidized bed
The main difference between BFB and CFB is that the airflow in a CFB is stronger, forcing the sand to
circulate in a stream through the entire incinerator. There is also a calcium-rich material added (like
limestone) which efficiently absorbs sulfur dioxide. At incineration about 95 % sand and 5 % fuel are
inside the incinerator. The circulation of sand operates as a heat layer, transferring the energy to the
steam/water in a more efficient manner. Steam in a fluidized bed is able to be heated up to 470 ° C at
a pressure of 60 bar which can generate more electricity in a plant and increase the electricity
41
42
(Sundsvalls energi AB)
(Sundsvalls energi AB)
30
amount with a couple of percent43. CFB incinerators are generally used in plants with an installed
effect over 40 MW44.
Figure 20. CFB incinerator in Händelö, Norrköping, Sweden.
The sand circulation is shown by arrows in Figure 20. Hard-grained sand particles and ash from the
fuel is collected in the bottom of the cyclone while the fine-grained particles return to the
incinerator.
3.2 Flue gas cleaning
By cleaning the flue gases from a WTE-plant it is possible to capture the toxic gases and particles that
the raw gas consists of. By burning the waste at the right temperature and stochiometry the
composition of the raw gas is about the same and a design for the flue gas(FG) cleaning system can
be engineered.
3.2.1 Particles
By letting the flue gas pass through different filters the particles can be captured and collected for
treatment. This is often done in several different steps in the process and by different types of filters
made for capturing different sizes of particles.
3.2.2 Cyclones
Cyclones are operating just after the incinerator. The hot flue gas is set in spin making ash particles to
be forced to the walls by the centripetal force and thereby separated from the flue gas. By using the
force of gravity, the particles fall down and are gathered in containers at the bottom of the cyclone
to be transported away. The cyclones are often placed underneath the heat exchangers.
43
44
(EON, 2008)
(Sundsvalls energi AB)
31
3.2.3 Electrostatic precipitators
Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) are used for separating fine particles from the flue gas.
Particles in the flue gas are passing through an electric field. The particles surface becomes
negatively charged by the electric field and then collected at parallel mounted collective plates when
the flue gas passes through45. These plates are grounded and attract the negatively charged particles
and seize them. To clear the plates mechanical-, striking- or vibrating- force is making the particles
fall down into a gathering canister. The particles are then either transported back to the combustion
chamber or removed for disposal.
The placement of ESPs can be on either the hot or cold side of the cleaning process46. Hot side ESPs
operate at 350-400 °C and are placed upstream the heat ex-changer. The cold sides ESPs operates in
the range 120-200 °C and are placed at the end of the flue gas treatment. Efficiencies of ESPs depend
on the specific collection area, the operating voltage and the characteristics of the particles.
Particles with high resistivity are difficult to charge in the electric field and therefore not so easily
captured in this step.
A problem with low resistivity particles, which are easily charged, is that they tend to be easily
discharged as well and therefore pass the plates and carry on with the flue gas.
3.2.4 Electro venturi filter
An electro venturi filter is a wet system that allows the particles in the flue gas pass through
electrodes making them positively charged. By letting the flue gas pass through a filter that consists
of moisture, the small particles are absorbed by the positively charged water particles. The
contaminated water is gathered at the bottom of the filter and the treated flue gas passes on47.
3.2.5 Fabric filters
A third method of capturing particles is by leading the flue gas through fabric filters that have dust
clustered on the surface. The dust that is clustered on the filter contains of pre-coated particles and
preciously captured particles. The filters are often formed as tubes and above them there are nozzles
that shoot compressed air through each tube when the cluster is thick enough. In consequence of
that the dust falls down and is gathered in silos.
It is possible to add carbon or limestone to the flue gas before entering the filter. This will also
capture dioxins and furans in the cluster48.
Fabric filters have been used for a long time and are very efficient for capturing particles.
3.2.6 NID-reactor and Turbosorp
There are also systems developed by Alstom and Von Roll, called the NID- and Turbosorp, where the
flue gases are sprayed by a moisturized mix of limestone and re-circulated ash for desulfurization.
The system is possible to run without addition of water, but by moisturizing the flue gas the contact
surface will be greater between the absorbent and the flue gas. After the flue gas has been sprayed,
45
(Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, 1996)
46
(Zevenhoven, 2002)
47
(Sysav, 2007)
48
(Umeå Energi)
32
the mix of flue gas and absorbent passes through a fabric filter. Some of the ash is re-circulated and
some is collected in silos under the fabric filter49. The reaction is presented below in equation 250.
‫ܱܽܥ‬ሺ‫ݏ‬ሻ + ‫ܪ‬ଶ ܱ → ‫ܽܥ‬ሺܱ‫ܪ‬ሻଶ
ܱܵଶ + ‫ܽܥ‬ሺܱ‫ܪ‬ሻଶ + ‫ܪ‬ଶ ܱ → ‫ܱܵܽܥ‬ଷ ∙ 2‫ܪ‬ଶ ܱ
(2)
‫ܱܵܽܥ‬ଷ ∙ 2‫ܪ‬ଶ ܱ + ½ܱଶ → ‫ܱܵܽܥ‬ସ ∙ 2‫ܪ‬ଶ ܱ
3.2.7 NOx reduction
There are two techniques used for the reduction of NOx, SNCR and SCR. SNCR is a technique that
needs high temperature and SCR treats the flue gas in a lower temperature using a catalyst.
3.2.7.1 SNCR, Selective non-catalytic NOx reduction
SNCR is a technique to reduce NO emissions already in the incinerator. By adding ammonia or urea 51
in the upper parts of the incinerator where temperature is between 850-1000 °C the NOx can be
reduced by 30-50 % 52. Ammonia or Urea is injected together with a carrier often water or ammonia
in a gas phase. Because of the limits in the temperature window and the difference in load, it is
common to have different levels in the incinerator where the injection takes place.
The reaction is taking place below 850 °C as well, but at a slow rate. If the temperature exceeds
1400 °C, the ammonia reacts with oxygen forming thermal NOx.
The method is less costly then SCR but less efficient and does not remove NO2. Equation 3 shows the
reaction.
ܰ‫ܪ‬ଷାைு,ାை → ܰ‫ܪ‬௜ାேை → ܰଶ
(3)
3.2.7.2 SCR, Selective catalytic NOx reduction
SCR is a powerful method of removing NOx from the flue gas. It uses the same compounds as SNCR,
ammonia or urea, but the reaction takes place in a lower temperature interval by using a catalyst.
The SCR device, also known as the catalyst, is therefore placed outside the incinerator were the flue
gas is in the range of 350-400 °C 53, but the reaction can take place when the temperature is as low as
200 °C 54. The two main reactions that take place are shown in equation 4.
4ܱܰ + 4ܰ‫ܪ‬ଷ + ܱଶ → 4ܰଶ + 6‫ܪ‬ଶ ܱ
2ܱܰଶ + 4ܰ‫ܪ‬ଷ + ܱଶ → 3ܰଶ + 6‫ܪ‬ଶ ܱ
(4)
49
(Ohlsson, 2006)
(Zevenhoven, 2002)
51
(Andersson, 2004)
52
(Zevenhoven, 2002)
53
(Zevenhoven, 2002)
54
(Andersson, 2004)
50
33
There are three types of SCR, which one is used depends on where in flue gas cleaning process the
device is installed:
-Hot side, high dust. The catalyst is placed upstream the cleaning process.
-Hot side, low dust. The catalyst is placed downstream the particulate emission control (ESP) and
upstream the scrubbers.
-Cold side, low dust. The catalyst is placed downstream the ESP and the scrubbers. This solution is
shown in figure 21.
The last option is commonly used in waste incineration plants because of the other pollutants in the
flue gas. This often makes it necessary to reheat the flue gas and therefore causes a loss in thermal
efficiency.
The efficiency of NOx reduction is about 80 %, but the investment cost is higher.
Because of the placement of the SCR, when the flue gases has been mixed and reached a stable
temperature, the injection of ammonia can be more aligned to the amount of flue gas compared to
the SNCR technique. This causes less non reacted ammonia from the cleaning process in the flue gas.
3.2.8 SOx, HCl, furan and dioxin
By letting the flue gas through a system of scrubbers, as shown in figure 21, the gas is cleaned from
Ammonia (NH3), Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Hydrogen fluoride (HF), Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and heavy
metals.
This system consists of two scrubbers and a quench cooler. By spraying the flue gas with water in the
quench, it will cool down to saturation temperature.
In the first scrubber ammonia, hydrochloric acid, hydrogen fluoride and heavy metals are removed
from the flue gas.
By spraying the flue gas with a solution of water and nahcolite (NaHCO3) the HCl reacts and forms a
salt (NaCl), water and carbon dioxide. The mix of water and salt is gathered in the bottom of the
scrubber and lead away to water treatment.
In the second stage the flue gas is cleaned from SOx in an alkaline scrubber. By spraying the flue gas
with a mix of limestone and water, sulfur dioxin reacts with the limestone forming calcium sulfate,
also known as gypsum.
An addition of activated carbon, either by placing doped plastics in the scrubber or by adding it to the
NaOH, makes it is also possible to remove most of the dioxins and furans.
34
Figure 21. Example of a flue gas cleaning system in Korstaverken Sundsvall.
3.2.9 System of measuring flue gases in Sweden
There is a system installed in the plants measuring some of the pollutants continuously. The
pollutants that are measured continuously are; PM, HCl, NOx, SO2, TOC, CO, CO2, HCl and HF.
Heavy metals, dioxins and furans are measured twice annually except for a plants first year, when
they are measured four times. Except for the plants own measuring systems the plants have
contracts with independent companies that measure flue gas emissions55.
3.3 Comparison with Swedish WTE Plants
A comparison of the limits has been made with the emissions from three new Swedish WTE plants
during 2007. All the plants are using reciprocating grate incinerators. There is a slight difference in
flue gas cleaning systems between the plants. A brief description of the plants is made below:
55
•
Sysav P3, Malmö
The plant started to operate in year 2003, total installed capacity is 75 MW. 249 980 tonnes
of waste was incinerated during 2007. Flue gas cleaning is delivered by the French company,
LAB. The technique used for capturing of NOx is SCR.
•
Korsta F5, Sundsvall
In the end of year 2006, the plant started to operate. During 2007, 196 640 tonnes of waste
was incinerated. The total installed capacity is 60 MW. LAB is the deliverer of the system for
flue gas cleaning and the technique used for NOx capturing is SCR.
(Naturvårdsverket)
35
Torsvik, Jönköping
The plant started to operate in year 2006 and has a total installed capacity is 65 MW. During
2007, 161 329 tonnes of waste was incinerated. The supplier of the flue gas cleaning is
Alstom and the plant has a SNCR installed for NOx removal.
Limits and emissions from three plants in Sweden
60
50
Chilean Norms
European Norms
mg/m³N
40
Torsvik, Jonkoping 2007
30
SYSAV P3 2007
20
Korsta, F5 2007
10
0
MP
SO2
CO
COT
HCl
As----Zn
Figure 22.. A comparison between the limits for; MP, SO2, CO, TOC,, HCl, metals* and the emissions from the
plants during 2007.
*=As, Co, Cr, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Te, V and Zn
Limits and emissions from three plants in Sweden
2,5
2
mg/m³N
•
Chilean Norms
1,5
European Norms
Torsvik, Jonkoping 2007
1
SYSAV P3, 2007
Korsta
0,5
0
Cd
Hg
HF
Dioxin [ng/m³N]
Figure 23.. A comparison between the limits for; Cd, Hg, HF, dioxin and the emissions from the plants during 2007.
36
NOx limits and emissions
350
300
250
mg/m³N
Chilean Norms
200
European Norms
Torsvik, Jonkoping 2007
150
SYSAV P3 2007
100
Korsta, F5 2007
50
0
NOx
Figure 24. A comparison between the limits for NOx and the emissions from the plants during 2007.
As shown in Figures 22-24 the emissions from the plants are far below the limits. Every pollutant in
the flue gas is below the Chilean (as well as the European) limit.
A WTE plant operates about 8000 hours per year and emits pollutants almost year-round.
year
As a result
of that a comparison has been made with the laws of Metropolitana Region (see chapter 2.5.1). The
comparison is presented in Figure
igure 25.
25 This comparison has been
n made to investigate the possible size
for a plant without exceeding the limits. The technology in flue gas cleaning is different between the
plants so it is not necessarily the plant that incinerates the largest
est amounts that has the largest
emissions.
160
140
120
Region Metropolitana Norm
tonne/year
100
Jönköping, 2007, 65MW, 161329 ton
80
SYSAV P3, 2007, 75 MW, 249980 ton
60
Korsta, 2007, 60 MW, 196640 ton, Unknown
CO and VOC data
40
20
0
MP
SO2
NOx
CO
VOC
Figure 25. A comparison
omparison between the limits and emissions from three Swedish WTE plants.
37
Emissions from the Swedish plants are below the limits regarding every pollutant. VOC (Volatile
organic compound) emission is not a pollutant that is needed to be declared due to the European law
for waste incineration. A part of TOC (Total organic compound) is VOC so those emissions are
showed from the Swedish plants.
Emissions of NOx from Jönköping are close to exceed the limits though the amount of waste is lowest
there. This depends on the technique used in the plant. SNCR technique that is used at the plant is
not as effective for capturing NOx as SCR technique that is used in the other plants. Emissions of the
other pollutants are too small compared to the limits so they will not be a problem for a future plant.
3.4 Water treatment
For cleaning of flue gases an addition of water is needed. Depending on the flue gas cleaning system,
the amount of water needed varies. The water is used in the quench, the scrubbers and for NOx
caption (SNCR or SCR). Dåva in Umeå, using SNCR technique, needed 60 126 m3 water during 2007
(incinerated 158 647 tonnes of waste). The water is used for cooling and flue gas cleaning in the
process. An analysis has been made of four Swedish plants (Dåva, Sävenäs, SYSAV and Lidköping) and
the water consumption year 2007 was between 0,3-0,5 m3/tonne waste incinerated.
The water is after the flue gas purification extremely acidic, pH ≈0.5. As a consequence of that, the
first step in water treatment is to pH-neutralize the water.
3.4.1 pH-neutralization
pH-neutralization is commonly done in various steps. In the first step the chemicals, Limestone
(CaCO3) or Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is admixed to adjust the pH to approximately 2-3. Carbonic acid
cupellation is the next step in the process. CO2 is stripped of the water through the column packing’s.
In the last step the pH is adjusted to 9-10 by an addition of slaked lime, Ca(OH)2.
3.4.2 Ammonia cupellation
Ammonia, NH3, is stripped through the column packing’s by a similar method as CO2. Preheated air
saturated with steam is passing through the column packing’s. The ammonia becomes absorbed to
the hot air that later on is used inside the furnace as secondary combustion air.
3.4.3 Precipitation
Precipitation occurs when an insoluble substance is formed in the solution due to a chemical
reaction. In this case the chemicals that are mixed with the water are TMT-15, NaOH and FeCl3. Small
solid forms appear in the solution.
3.4.4 Flocculation
Flocculation is a process where a solute comes out of solution in the form of a floc. The action differs
from precipitation in that the solute coming out of solution does so at a concentration below its
solubility limit in the liquid. The flocculent such as polyacrylamide is admixed to coagulate the solids
in the liquid.
38
3.4.5 Sedimentation
Sedimentation is a process used to settle out suspended solids in water under the influence of
gravity. In a sedimentation tank, the water slowly passes through various lamellar separators. As a
result of that the solid pollutants, with a higher density, sink to the bottom of the tank and form a
sludge that is released and recovered.
The process with; precipitation, flocculation and sedimentation can be repeated over and over again
to get the water even less contaminated.
3.4.6 Filtration
Filtration is a mechanical or physical process which is used for the separation of small particles from
the water by interposing a medium to water flow through which the water can pass, but the particles
in the water are retained. The filters used are sand filters, carbon filters and bag filters. Most
common is to have different filters in succession. The water treatment is presented in figure 26.
Figure 26. Waste water cleaning system for the WTE-plant in Sävenäs, Gothenburg.
3.5 Cooling towers
Cooling towers can be divided into two major subdivisions
-
Mechanical draft
Natural draft
39
Natural draft cooling towers are used in huge scale electric power plants where flows are greater
than 750 m3/min. These cooling towers are built in concrete and have sizes of about 150 meters high
and a diametric base of about 120 meters and are illustrated in figure 27.
Figure 27. The figure is showing a natural draft cooling tower.
Mechanical draft cooling towers are more common used and in all kinds of different applications.
They are much more compact in design and use a fan to force air through the tower as shown in
figure 28.
Figure 28. Mechanical draft cooling tower.
40
The idea is the same for both mechanical and natural draft cooling towers. By using the air that flows
upwards in the tower and spraying water from the top over the fill area, it is possible to cool down
the water droplets and then collecting the cooled water at the bottom ready for use. By using water
in the cooling process the heat exchange becomes efficient because most of the heat exchange take
place by evaporating water. For example it takes, in theory, 2450 kJ of energy to evaporate 1 kg of
20°C water to air 56.
Where there is a lack of water and the air temperatures are high there is need for dry system or
semi-dry systems. The principle of these cooling towers are to use the air and either natural or forced
convection for cooling. Vapor is lead through pipes with cooling fins which is cooled by air as shown
in figure 29. The semi-dry system also uses water that is sprinkled over the cooling fins and pipes.
This increases the heat ex-change because of the energy required for saturating the air57.
Figure 29. The figure shows a condenser, also named a dry system cooling tower.
4 Steam Production
The energy in the hot flue gases is transferred to a closed water to steam system. The water inside a
feed water tank becomes superheated steam for electric power production by various steps.
Depending on the need in the area, the steam can be used for different purposes.
4.1 Boiler
Water leaves the feed water tank at a temperature around 140 ˚C and is pressurized by a pump
before entering the boiler where it is heated in an economizer and evaporated in an evaporator. This
saturated steam, that still contains water in liquid phase, is passing a steam drum where the vapor is
separated from the liquid. In various superheaters the saturated steam is superheated to a
temperature of about 400 ˚C and 40 bar (See Figure 30).
56
57
(Alvarez, 2006)
(Alvarez, 2006)
41
Figure 30: Heat exchange from fluegases to water/steam in superheaters, evaporators and economizers.
4.2 Steam accumulator
In processes where the demand of steam varies during the day there is a method of storing steam
that can be released when required. A steam accumulator is an extension of the energy storage
capacity of the boiler. When steam demand from the plant is low the boiler can produce same
amount of steam, charging the steam accumulator. The accumulator is later on discharged during the
industries peak demands. Size and duration of the peak demand is dimensioning the size of an
accumulator58.
Another advantage of installing a steam accumulator is that it for a short period can continue to
deliver steam in case of problems with the boiler.
Storing the steam as a gas is not practical
due to the huge storage volumes required
at normal boiler pressures. The
accumulator is charged with steam by
injectors. Pressure inside the vessel
increases when the surrounding water
(liquid phase) absorbs the heat from the
steam injected. The injected steam is at
the same time condensed and the water
level inside the vessel increases. (see
Figure 31: A sliding pressure steam accumulator.
Figure 31). When a pressure drop occurs
in the steam accumulator the water evaporates and steam is discharged59. The amount of steam
discharged depends on the steam pressure required and size of the vessel.
58
59
(Spirax Sarco)
(Alvarez, 2006)
42
4.3 Energy distribution
The superheated steam is passing a turbine where electric power is produced. In a WTE-energy plant,
about 25-30 % of the energy in the steam
is used for electric power production. The
remaining energy is used in form of
district heating, district cooling or as
steam for industrial processes (see Figure
32). E.g. in USA WTE-plants only produce
electric power and the thermal heat
needs then to be absorbed either in
cooling towers or a nearby lake/river.
Figure 32: Energy distribution from a WTE-plant.
4.4 The use of steam in industrial processes
Steam is used in industry processes for different purposes. Depending on the type of process the
amount of returned steam to the plant varies. In industries where the steam is used directly in the
process (e.g. drying of a product) none or just a few percents are returned as condensate to the WTEplant.
When the steam is used indirectly in a process and just heat exchanged 100 % of the steam can be
returned as condensate to the plant.
5 District cooling
5.1 Background District Cooling
Today the use of energy is greater for cooling than heating because of the demands of comfort
temperatures in buildings and the increasing amount of technology that needs cooling. There is also
a great amount of industries that needs cooling in their process60. The first commercial District
cooling grid was built in the U.S. in the beginning of the sixties and came to Europe in the late sixties.
It is now common in France, Germany, USA, Japan and Sweden. District cooling is mainly used when
there is need of large scale cooling. The solution of distributing district cooling is similar to district
heating with grids of pipes that connect the customers to a plant. By connecting large scale
customers in the beginning stages of the exploitation it has been shown to be easier to build the
infrastructure61. This way new customer that might be small tends to be more interested in
connecting after the start.
The benefits of using district cooling are that heat with low value can be used and that there is
possibility of decreasing the use of electricity for cooling.
60
61
(Svensk fjärrvärme)
(Fjärrvärme föreningen, 2000)
43
5.2 Solutions
District cooling can be used in cooling processes, water cooling or air conditioning in buildings. By
offering a price that is below the cost of cooling with electrical driven cooling machines the
customers can see the benefits of connecting without the need of incentives from the government.
5.3 Types of Absorption Cooling Machines (ACM)
There are two different types of ACM, one for temperatures over freezing level and one below. The
two different types have different fluids in their system.
-
Water as refrigerant together with lithium bromide as absorbent for temperatures over
freezing level
Ammonia as refrigerant together with water as absorbent for temperatures below freezing
level.
They have their own implementation but use the same type of principle. The system consists of four
basic parts condenser, generator, absorber and evaporator as shown in figure 33. The machine also
includes pumps that regulate the pressure and intake of cooling water for cooling parts of the
process. There is need for a heat source, which can be hot water or hot gas or steam (7). By using
the difference in boiling temperature between the absorbent and the refrigerant, it is possible to
separate the two fluids with energy from the heat source in the generator (3). When the separation
has been made the refrigerant is in vapor phase (2) and need to be cooled down to a fluid (5) in the
condenser (1). The refrigerant is evaporated by the returning, heated, chill water (10). This can be
done by keeping a low pressure and thereby a low boiling point for the refrigerant. The returned chill
water is heat exchanged and leaves the evaporator with low temperature for use in different cooling
processes (8). By spraying the vaporized refrigerant with an absorbent it is possible to bind the
moisture to a fluid mixture of refrigerant and absorbent (11). When the moisture is captured a small
amount of heat is set free and needs to be cooled by cooling water (9).The mixture of the two liquids
is then pumped back to the evaporator.
62
Figure 33. The figure shows a simplified chart over the different parts of an Absorption Cycle .
62
(Carrier)
44
The process needs to be cooled in two different places and can either use cooling water from a river
or from a cooling tower if there is lack of natural cooling opportunities. These two can be serial
connected so that the cooling water passes through the absorber and then through the condenser.
The cost for connecting a cooling tower adds about 90% of the cost for the ACM63.
5.3.1 Steam fired ACM
Absorption cooling machines that are driven by steam are common and used for temperatures over
freezing level, and with an outgoing temperature of about 6 °C and entering at 15 °C. These types of
ACM are used where there is low pressure steam available (0,5-1 bar). By using the great amount of
energy released during condensation, the ACM needs relatively low flows compared to using water
as heat source. The ACM is using water and a salt solution. The contents are environmental friendly
and substitute refrigerants that harm the ozone. The technique is well known and needs little
maintenance because of the few moving parts. The only real moving parts are the pumps which are
easy to change and maintain. The nominal coefficient of performance (COP) is typical around factor
0,7 64 with full load (see example in figure 34), but data obtained from Umeå Energi shows that COP
varies between 0,3-0,87. The actual COP factor varies with the load, type of heat source and cooling
possibility65.
Figure 34. The figure shows the temperatures, pressure and efficiency for an absorption cooling machine with water as
66
refrigerant .
63
(Carrier, 2008)
(Carrier, 2008)
65
(Energimyndigheten, 2006)
66
(Carrier)
64
45
5.3.2 Ammonia
Ammonia driven absorption cooling machines (AACM) are used when temperatures below freezing
level is needed. These AACM have a greater investment cost then an equal sized ACM, but can work
in as low temperatures as -40°C, (see figure 35). Therefore the applications are different.
67
Figure 35. The figure shows the temperature and pressure for a typical AACM cycle .
67
(Instituto Superior Técnico, 2006)
46
5.4 Distribution of district cooling
The distribution of district cooling takes place in pipes buried in the ground. These pipes are sealed in
foam and are capsule in aluminum foil and a plastic outer casing as described in figure 36 and 37. The
pipes can either be single piped or double piped. Single piped needs two packages, one for outgoing
water and on for return, while the double piped package consist of one outgoing and one return. The
pipe can be in metal or plastics. Double piped systems have its benefits in low costs, less space
needed and less heat loss68.
Figure 36. The figure shows the structure of a double piped distribution pipe.
Figure 37. The figure shows the structure of a single-piped distribution pipe.
68
(Logstor A/S, 2008)
47
6 Results
The results are divided in three parts. First part is describing the technique chosen and the
distribution of electric power, steam and district cooling to the industries. The second part is treating
the profitability of the investment with annual incomes and operational costs. Environmental impact
of a WTE-plant installation has as well been studied and is considered as the third part.
6.1 Technique
Depending on the location, waste composition and regional laws, different types of incinerators and
flue gas cleaning systems can be chosen. The distribution of electric power, steam and district cooling
over the year is also considered in the chapter.
6.1.1 Incinerator
There is today almost no recycling of waste in Santiago and Chile, as mentioned in chapter 2.3.5. It
leads to a very inhomogeneous waste. Reciprocating grates are not as sensitive as fluidized beds and
allow bigger variations in fuel composition. Installation of a reciprocating grate as incinerator would
not require a pretreatment of the fuel so the technology is preferable in Santiago.
In Sweden, the quantity of waste available is generally the deciding factor of the size of a plant. The
quantities in Santiago are not a deciding factor so after a consultation with supervisors two different
scenarios have been set up: One with a thermal effect of 60 MW (190 080 tonnes/year) and of 100
MW (316 800 tonnes/year). (Grate efficiency 88%)
Price information has been received from Von Roll for an incinerator/boiler system including feed
water system, burners, ash systems etc. The difference in the investment and annual profit has been
made between the systems.
Both alternatives operate 8040 hours per year with a one month stop for maintenance work.
This stop is preferable in winter, somewhere between May-July, when the demand of steam and
cooling is low. During this period the industries will have to use internal incinerators providing them
with steam.
Two incinerators of 60 MW connected to one flue gas cleaning system have as well been studied but
the costs for the investment were too high. A big advantage with that system would be that the
industries could be provided with steam and cooling during the whole year.
48
6.1.2 Flue Gas Cleaning
The flue gas cleaning system that would be appropriate would consist of:
•
•
•
•
Cyclones underneath the super heaters
ESP after the Cyclones
Turbosorp or a NID-reactor
SCR
and is shown in figure 38.
Cyclone
ESP
NID/Turbosorp
SCR
Textile filter
Stack
Figure 38. The figure shows the flue gas cleaning system in simplified block.
The strict regional laws for Metropolitana region have been mentioned in chapter 3.3.1 concerning
the annual maximums of various pollutants. The limits for emissions of NOx are the only one that can
cause a problem from a plant. Especially in the 100 MW scenario it will be necessary to use SCR
technique for capturing NOx.
Table 3. Prices for the components.
Component
Investment cost [€]
Cyclones
Included in the price for grate
ESP
Included in the price for grate
Turbosorp/NID
10’000’000
SCR
5’000’000
Chemicals
Activated carbon, CaO,
Ammonia
In the flue gas cleaning system it is also necessary to add water in the SCR and Turbosorp/NIDreactor. The water is delivered by the privately owned company Aguas Andinas, and is water for
industrial use. Prices of the components are shown in table 3.
Table 4. Prices for chemicals based on 8040 operational hours per year
Chemical
Price [€/tonne]
Use [tonnes/h]
Total [€]
Activated Carbon 869
0,0085
225420
Ammonia
215
0,135
233420
CaO
112
0,25
59407
Water
0,39
3,94
12309
The Turbosorp/NID- reactors have their benefits when it comes to economy and space. Although
there is no lack of space at the site, there is still need for keeping low use of water and low costs. For
more information see appendix 13.
From the grate the flue gas passes through the heaters and the first cleaning step where larger
particles are captured in cyclones.
49
Then by letting the gas pass through an electrostatic filter smaller particles are removed. The
Turbosorp/NID-reactors combined with fabric filters removes the sulfurs and acidic and then, after
reheating the gas the NOx is removed in a SCR-catalyst before set to air through the stack.
By using ammonia instead of urea the emissions of nitrous oxide are kept low and it is also an “easyhandling” product that exists in stock, mixed and ready for use. Urea needs to be mixed on site and is
not as common as ammonia. Prices for the chemicals are shown in table 4.
The flue gas cleaning system is chosen according to contacts with Von Roll and Alstom, fulfilling the
emission laws.
The content of the raw gas was calculated in a program obtained from RVF(Avfall Sverige) and a print
is presented in appendix 2. For calculations about the efficiency of the incinerator the factor is set to
be 88% which is an estimated value. Because of one stop during one month the estimated
operational hours is calculated to be 8040 hours per year.
6.1.3 Location
The location of a plant is preferable somewhere close to possible customers, big industries. The
easiest solution would be to build a plant next to the transfer station in Quilicura close to the
industrial park of Quilicura. There is a lot of free space there with a closed landfill, Cerro Renca. A
very easy solution that is not possible to achieve by various reasons:
•
•
•
•
Economical: KDM are not owners of the land around the transfer station and prices inside
the ring of Américo Vespucio are much higher than outside.
Political: A plant of incineration that operates 8040 hours/year and continually emits
pollutants to the smoggy air of Santiago would never be supported from the politicians,
inside the ring.
Environmental: The city has big problems with the air quality causing the industries to close
down some days. Despite to a shown emission reduction, by closing down some of the
other industries incineration, a WTE plant would not be approved so centrally.
Social: In the municipality there have been various protests from the citizens against the
treatment of waste in the municipality.
Beside the transfer station it is possible to construct a plant somewhere close to the railway where
KDM:s trains daily operate. This solution would not increase the transport emissions or costs if the
plant is built close to the railway. In the northern parts of Quilicura and in the municipality of Lampa
there are industries that would be possible as clients. Benefits of a plant in Lampa are that the land
prices are much lower and it is situated in the periphery of the city. A disadvantage is that it is further
to many industries which would lead to higher connection costs. Land costs in industrial zones in
Lampa are about 0,85 UF*/m2 and about 2,2 UF*/m2 in Quilicura69.
A potential location for a plant has together with the company been found. It is located in
municipality of Lampa, north of Quilicura very close to the railway where KDM trains operate. The
property of 38894 m2, far away from residential areas, is sold for industrial purpose. It is connected
to a water and sewage system and costs 33060 UF.
* = UF is an inflation adjusted unit of money used mainly in business and formal financial transactions that involve large sums. It is
frequently used with rental contracts and buying and selling homes or businesses. The rate of the UF varies daily according to the monthly
inflation rate of the previous month. To see UF of the day, visit: http://www.uf.cl/
69
(Mundo inmobiliario)
50
6.1.4. Steam cycle
The steam system and its temperatures, mass flow, steam content and pressure is presented in table
5 and figure 39. The superheated steam leaves the boiler (1) and is lead through a turbine with
tapping off steam at 14,5 bar supplying the industries need of steam (2) and steam to the feed water
tank (10). The rest of the steam continues through the low pressure part of the turbine. The steam
leaves the turbine at low pressure (4) and enters the ACM that condense some of the steam for
boiling the refrigerant (4-5). The rest of the steam is condensed in the cooling tower (5-6). The water
then passes through a pump (6-7) increasing the pressure before entering the feed water tank. The
returning condensate from the industries, condensate from the turbine cycle and steam from the
tapping off is then blended in the feed water tank before entering the feed water pump (11).
The enthalpy of the water from the feed water tank is calculated in equation 5
ℎଵଵ =
௠ሶభబ ௛భబ ା௠ሶళ ௛ళ ା௠ሶయ ௛య
௠ሶభబ ା௠ሶళ ା௠ሶయ
(5)
The enthalpy Is 0,42 MJ/kg and this refers to, according to a Molier chart, temperature of 100°C at
the pressure of 3 bar. The pressure of the returning condensate is assumed and set to 3 bar. The
work from the pumps is included in the calculations over internal electricity consumption and is
assumed to not increase the temperature of the water. By connecting the ACM between the cooling
tower and the turbine it is possible to use low quality steam and still use the benefits of a steam fired
ACM with low flow. The other benefit is that the ACM condensates a great amount of steam that
otherwise would have been needed to condensate in the cooling tower. The system is presented in
figure 39.
Figure 39. The figure shows the steam and cooling system for the plant.
51
Table 5. The flows of the distribution and internal flows of the plant.
Nr
Mass flow
Temperature
Pressure
[tonnes/h]
[°C]
[Bar]
Steam content
[%]
1
120
400
40
100%
2
82
196
14,5
100%
3
82
100
3
0%
4
36
81
0,5
95%
5
36
81
0,5
70%
6
36
81
0,5
0%
7
36
81
3
0%
8
1280
7
5
0%
9
1280
15
5
0%
10
2
196
14,5
100%
11
120
99
3
0%
12
120
99
40
0%
6.1.5 Distribution
A plant located in Lampa, Santiago would except for electric power produce steam and district
cooling for industries. A production of 72 tonne/hour steam is possible from the 60 MW grate and
120 tonne/hour from the 100 MW grate. Providing all the industries with steam would generate 81,5
tonne/hour as maximum.
Figure 40. The figure shows a schematic picture over the connections of the industries in Lampa and Quilicura.
52
As the 60 MW plant only generate 72 tonne steam per hour it would only be connected to industries
1-7 that have a total maximum need of 56 tonne/hour. For information about the individual use for
the industries se appendix 4 and for connection scheme see figure 40.
6.1.5.1 Electric power
The turbine is designed for a steam data of 40 bar and 400 ˚C. An addition of 10 % has been made to
the turbine size in consultation with the turbine supplier. The turbine is prepared for an extraction of
83 tonne/hour of steam at a pressure of 14,5 bar but is designed for zero extraction letting all the
steam pass through the second stage of the turbine.
The condensing pressure is fixed to 0,5 bar. Cooling towers are designed for condensation of the 0,5
bar steam (temperature 81˚C), a system that is far away as efficient as a water cooled system. Lack of
rivers/lakes in the area is making cooling towers as the only possible solution.
A preliminary electricity output from turbine for alternative 1, 60 MW grate is 16 MW (if no steam is
extracted at 14,5 bar) and 27 MW for alternative 2, 100 MW grate. The steam consists of about 95 %
dryness
The turbines would be delivered as packages with generator, gear, valves etc. with a cost of
(excluding work costs):
Alternative 1: 6 million Euros
Alternative 2: 8 million Euros
The production of electric power will vary depending on the need of steam to the industries. There is
also a variation in the internal need of electricity because of the variation of power to the cooling
tower.
The cooling tower will need more power input during hot periods. The temperature varies with the
seasons and the daily variations between day and night.
The cooling tower needs to be dimensioned so that it is possible to cool down all the low pressure
steam in the scenario that all the steam produced in the boiler passes through the low pressure
turbine.
This will lead to an over sized cooling tower, but it is necessary if there will be a shutdown of steam
to the industries.
6.1.5.2 Steam
There are seven known industries in the area that are using steam as a part of the process. The use of
the steam in the processes is unknown, but an assumption of all steam being reused has been made.
More than seven industries in the area are using steam, with unknown data, so a connection of
further industries would be possible in the future. As earlier mentioned a maximum of 81,5
tonnes/hour steam is required. Two of the industries have varying production during the seasons so
the need of steam to industries will vary as shown in figure 41. As there is no known daily variation in
need of steam, a steam accumulator will not be necessary.
53
Need of steam over the year
85
80
Ton/Hour
75
70
65
60
55
50
jan
feb
mar
apr
may
jun
jul
aug
sep
okt
nov
dec
Figure 41: The variation in need of steam over the year.
.1 Steam Pipe dimensioning
6.1.5.2.1
Steam velocities for saturated steam are recommended somewhere between 15-40
15
m/s for steam
distribution systems70. From those recommendations
recommendations an optimization of a steam pipe system has
been made. The optimization has been made from following factors:
• Investment: The cost of the pipes increases as the diameter of the pipe increases.
• Electric power: Transporting steam involves a pressure drop which leads to either an install
of a steam compressor (expensive investment and high operating costs) or steam with
higher pressure from the plant. The last option gives a loss in electric power production
from the plant. As the diameter of the pipes increases
increases the pressure drop decreases.
• Future: In case of further industries connected in the future,
future, the actual system should allow
50 % more steam flow.
Three different diameters of pipes (273, 323 and 406 mm) that satisfy the recommendations have
been presented by the supplier. From those models an
a optimization considering the factors above
has been made in What´s best.
70
(Engineering toolbox)
54
Income [M. €/year]
Yearly income as a function of
outlet pressure
7,85
7,80
7,75
7,70
7,65
7,60
7,55
7,50
7,45
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Pressure [Bar]
y = 1 415,80x2 - 76 870,10x + 8 527 486,67
Figure 42. The annual income as a function of the outlet pressure.
The equation in figure 42 above has been used to calculate an optimized size of the steam pipe
system satisfying the criteria’s mentioned above. Calculations are made for the 100 MW plant and
results of the optimization are shown in table 6:
Table 6. The pipe diameter and pressure between the plant and the industries 1-7.
Plant-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
Diameter
[mm]
406
406
406
406
323
323
71
Pressure
[bar]
14,07
13,59
13,40
12,438
12,32
12,15
6-7
323
12
With this optimization a pressure of 14,1 bar is required from the plant. To secure the right pressure
at every industry there is a safety margin calculated and the extraction from the turbine is made at
14,5 bar. To see the equation and the calculations of the pressure drop inside a steam pipe see
appendix 12.
6.1.5.2.2 Condensation Pipe dimensioning
The steam used in the industries will return as condensate of around 100 ˚C. A pipe system
concerning the quantity of condensate and investment costs of the different pipe sizes has been
made. Water inside pipes has usually a velocity of 2,5-3 m/s and those recommendations have been
followed determining the pipe size.
A certain amount of steam will condensate in form of heat losses and not be able to reach the
industry as steam. This heat loss in W/m is described in equation 7 below.
݂ = ሺܶ௠௘ௗ௜௨௠ − ܶ௘௔௥௧௛ ሻ × ܷ௣௜௣௘
71
(7)
(Engineeringtoolbox)
55
A condensation quantity can be decided over the distance from the plant to the last industry for a
known evaporation enthalpy, hfg, of ܶ௠௘ௗ௜௨௠ . With an optimized pipe system 2 tonne steam per hour
will condensate inside the pipes. To compensate this loss a maximum of 83,5 tonnes steam will be
extracted from the turbine. All the calculations are shown in appendix 13.
6.1.5.3 Results absorption cooling machine
The calculated COP for the existing cooling machines at the industries is expected to be 3,272 and 3 of
the industries use electric power as energy source. Two of the industries use natural gas and one of
them has temperatures below 0°C. By connecting this industry to the steam grid it is possible to use
the AACM.
The rest of the industries are connected to a separate grid only supplying cooling water at a
temperature of 7°C.
The ACM that is chosen is a Carrier/Sanyo steam fired TJ16-53 which has a cooling effect of 1440 kW,
steam flow of 6,108 tonne/h and a COP of 0,7 at driving pressure of 0,5 bar gauge pressure. The
steam flow from the turbine is at maximum 56 tonne/h and a minimum of 36 tonne/h which satisfies
the maximum need of 33,6 tonne/h.
This leads to a enthalpy of 1,124 MJ/kg for the wet steam leaving the ACM and a steam content of
34% that needs to be cooled down to condensate.
By parallel connecting six of this type it is possible to satisfy the need of district cooling.
The price for such an ACM would be 2,6 M€ including a separate cooling tower for the ACM73.
The AACM is placed on site at the industry and uses steam at 14,5 bar and a temperature of 200°C.
By contacts with Colibri, an AACM supplier, the machine that would be in appropriate would cost
approximately 2M€ including a cooling tower and a detailed technical specification is presented in
appendix 3. The AACM has a refrigeration capacity of 3,7 MW, delivers a evaporation temperature of
-20°C and has a COP of 0,47.
6.1.5.4 District cooling
The grid for distributing the cooling water is chosen according to the regulations of D:21174 for the
connected industries so that the velocity of the flow lies between 0,9 and 3,1 m/s depending on the
size of the pipe and is calculated in equation 6.
ସ௏ሶ
݀ = ටగ௏ [݉]
ܸ = ‫ݐ ݂݋ ݕݐ݅ܿ݋݈݁ݒ‬ℎ݁ ݂݈‫݉[ ݀݅ݑ‬/‫]ݏ‬
ܸሶ = ‫ݐ ݂݋ ݓ݋݈݂ ݁݉ݑ݈݋ݒ‬ℎ݁ ݂݈‫݉[݀݅ݑ‬ଷ /‫]ݏ‬
(6)
The system will consist of a single piped solution with plastic service pipes. This solution minimizes
the actual cost of material and it also reduces the heat loss compared to using a steel or copper pipe.
The costs for building a distribution grid is based on actual costs for building distribution pipes of
natural gas including costs of engineering, construction workers, equipment and rentals. The rate of
progress is based on 300 m/day and the price for the property is based on the costs of property for
the municipality of Lampa.
72
(Energimyndigheten, 2006)
(Carrier, 2008)
74
(Svensk Fjärrvärme, 2006)
73
56
The chosen pipe has the dimension of 306 mm which gives a velocity of 1,3-2,8 m/s and a mass flow
of 351-753 tonnes/h depending on the load and the price for the pipes would be 2,3 M€ based on a
metric price from a supplier 144 €/m pipe and a total length of 16500 meters.
Variations of need over the year as seen in figure 43.
Need of cooling over the year
6000
5000
[MWh]
4000
Industry 3
3000
Industry 2
2000
Industry 1
Industry 7
1000
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Figure 43. The figure shows the variations of cooling for the industries connected to the ACM.
6.1.6 Cooling tower
For calculations of the need of cooling the formula 875 was used
ܳ = ݉ሶ௠௔௫ ∗ ൫ℎ௟௣,௦௧௘௔௠ − ℎ௖௢௡ௗ௘௡௦௔௧௘ ൯
(8)
Where,
݇‫ܬ‬
ܳ = ‫ ݀݁ݎ݂݁݊ܽݎݐ ݕ݃ݎ݁݊ܧ‬൤ ൨
‫ݏ‬
݉ሶ௠௔௫ = ‫݃ݑ݋ݎݐ ݓ݋݈݂ ݏݏܽ݉ ݉ݑ݉݅ݔܽܯ‬ℎ ݈‫ ܾ݁݊݅ݎݑݐ ݁ݎݑݏݏ݁ݎ݌ ݓ݋‬൤
݇݃
൨
‫ݏ‬
ℎ௟௣,௦௧௘௔௠ = ‫ݐ݊ܧ‬ℎ݈ܽ‫ ܯܥܣ ݎ݋ ܾ݁݊݅ݎݑݐ ݁ݎݑݏݏ݁ݎ݌ ݓ݋݈ ݉݋ݎ݂ ݉ܽ݁ݐݏ ݐ݁ݓ ݎ݋݂ ݕ݌‬൤
ℎ௖௢௡ௗ௘௡௦௔௧௘ = ‫ݐ݊ܧ‬ℎ݈ܽ‫ ݁ݐܽݏ݊݁݀݊݋ܿ ݂݋ ݕ݌‬൤
݇‫ܬ‬
൨
݇݃
݇‫ܬ‬
൨
݇݃
The steam leaves the turbine at saturation pressure and needs to be cooled down to saturated water
to prevent damages on the pump. In case of problems with delivering steam to the industries, the
dimensions are set to fit the event of all steam from the boiler passing through the low pressure part
of the turbine and thereby through the cooling tower.
75
(Yunus, 2003)
57
Table 7. Table over phases when passing through the cooling tower under the worst case scenario.
Phase
Pressure [Bar]
Temperature [°C]
Enthalpy [kJ/kg]
Steam content
Low pressure
steam
Saturated liquid
0,5
81
2530
95%
Mass flow
[Tonne/h]
120
0,5
81
340
0
120
The chosen cooling tower is an air cooled condenser from GEA group. Sizing is made to the worst
case scenario with a steam flow of 120 ton/h and by-passing the ACM after the low-pressure turbine.
The calculations for required electricity to the fans are made in their calculation tool 76 but due to
limitations in the program the calculations for the cooling tower based on steam content of 85%. This
has the consequence of an overestimation of the shaft power for the cooling tower. Table over the
calculations are presented in appendix 6.
Because of the variations in temperature during daytime, night and during the seasons the power to
the cooling tower varies. During the winter when temperatures are low and the heat load is low,
there is less demand of high input to the fans as the temperatures are low. The reason for the low
heat load is that during these months the demand from the industries of steam is high and therefore
less steam is left to the low pressure turbine.
300
40
250
200
30
Fan shaft power Thigh [kW]
20
Fan shaft power Tlow [kW]
10
Average High T [°C]
dec
nov
oct
sep
aug
jul
jun
may
apr
mar
0
feb
150
jan
Electrivity [kW]
The electricity to the condensor connected to
the heat load in relation to the outside
temperature.
Average Low T[°C]
Figure 44. The figure shows the power needed to the cooling tower in relation to the variations in temperature for 2007
77
for Santiago de Chile .
6.1.7 Energy balances
The energy balance for the plant is presented in figure 46. The production is constant over the year,
accept for the month of June, when the plant is shutoff. This has the consequence of variations in
power distribution within the system. The cooling tower needs to cool down more condensate during
the cold months of April to August. This does not lead to an increase in power to the fans to the
cooling tower because of lower air temperatures as presented in figure 44.
76
77
(GEA group, 2008)
(myforecast.com)
58
The tapping of to the feed water tank and the turbine 1 will work under constant conditions over the
year. The production of electric power is shown in figure 45 and varies with the demand of steam to
the industries.
The major industries that are connected to the grids have their peak of need during the warm
months of the year and therefore contribute to an efficient cooling sink of the steam, returning
condensed water. If the annual need would have been the opposite, the cooling tower would have
used more power to condense the steam during the warm period of the year.
The variations of power to the different parts
over the year
120,0
Tapping off 2
ton/h
100,0
Cooling tower
MW
80,0
ACM
60,0
Turbine 2
40,0
20,0
To industries
0,0
Turbine 1
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jul
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Figure 45. The figure shows the distribution of energy to the different parts of the system.
Distribution of the electric power
produced in the plant
30000
MWh
25000
Electricity Netproduction
Electricity [MWh]
20000
15000
Electricity Electricity for
the plant [MWh]
10000
5000
Electricity For driving
ACM [MWh]
Dec
Nov
Oct
Sept
Aug
Jul
May
Apr
Mar
Feb
Jan
0
Electricity For cooling
towers [MWh]
Month
Figure 46. The figure shows the flows of electric power for the plant.
59
6.1.8 Efficiencies
The efficiencies of the plant are shown in figure 47 and describe:
•
•
Alpha value, the relation between the electricity and the used energy for heating (Steam to
industries and for driving the ACM).
The total efficiency which is based on the heat value for the waste and the produced energy.
The efficiencies for the plant
0,8
0,7
Efficiency
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
Alpha value
Total Efficiency
0,1
0
Figure 47. The figure shows the different efficiencies for the plant.
The efficiency of the incinerator is set to be 88% which gives that the ash will consist of some organic
compounds. The plant will have a break for revision during the month of June. This results in a
shutdown of all production at the plant. Because of the difference in the need of steam to the
industries the steam to the second turbine will vary also. This results in a variation of the alpha value
and the total efficiency of the plant.
The internal use of electricity is set to be 1/778 and this includes pumps, control system, flue gas
cleaning system etc. The electricity for driving the fans and control system for the cooling tower and
the ACM is separated and varies with the outside temperature and load.
The total efficiency is calculated as the net power output in relation with the heat value of the waste
that is put in. For details see appendix 7.
78
(Åberg, 2009)
60
6.2 Economy
The investment, operational costs and annual incomes are considered in this chapter. Different
economical methods have in the end of the chapter considered the profitability of the plant.
6.2.1 Investment
The plant investment includes the parts shown in the table 8 below. For more exact presentation of
the industrial need, connection costs and incomes for each industry see appendix 8-10
Table 8. The total investment for the two systems shown in M. Euro.
Grate
Fluegas
cleaning
Water
treatment
Property
Construction
Turbine
Cooling
Tower
Total
60
MW
62,0
12,8
1,3
0,9
6,5
6,0
2,2
91,6
100
MW
80,0
15,0
1,5
0,9
7,1
8,0
3,7
116,2
Table 9. Investment cost for pipes and ACM in M. Euro.
Steam pipes
3,63
Condensate pipes
7,98
Cooling pipes
2,29
Work costs
0,53
ACM with cooling tower
1,22
Total
15,64
The cost for pipes and ACM are chosen for the plant of 100 MW (see table 9).
6.2.2 Operational Costs
The annual operational costs include the salaries for workers, maintenance, water, chemical costs
and internal use of electricity. Those costs are shown in table 10. For more detailed information, see
appendix 10.
Table 10. The annual operational costs shown in M. Euro.
60 MW
100 MW
Salaries
0,88
0,88
Water
0,007
0,012
Chemicals
0,31
0,52
Maintenance
1,89
2,45
Internal Electricity
0,70
1,26
Total
3,09
3,87
61
6.2.3 Results Carbon Credits
The most important goal for reducing GHG is the limitation of emissions of carbon dioxide
equivalents in the atmosphere.
There are different incentives that can be received for decreasing the amount of GHG, shown in table
11. The carbon credits are received for replacing existing solutions such as land filling and
incineration of fossil fuels.
Table 11. The table presents different incentives from the Kyoto agreement for substituting to low
GHG production.
Carbon credit
No deposit
Not depositing
Green energy
SIC electricity, green energy
Diesel, green energy
Gas, green energy
Oil, green energy
Coal, green energy
Amount
5,04
7,20
7,20
3,46
2,13
1,58
2,23
2,72
Unit
[€/tonWaste]
[€/TonCO2]
[€/TonCO2]
[€/MWh]
[€/MWh]
[€/MWh]
[€/MWh]
[€/MWh]
For calculating different fuels contribution the use of carbon dioxide equivalents is used. This system
is based on different gases contribution to the GHG-effect per ton and is displayed in table 12.
Carbon dioxide has equivalent 1 and for example nitrous oxide has 310 times the impact as carbon
dioxide.
Table 12. Carbon dioxide equivalents for the calculated gases79.
Gas
Carbon dioxide [CO2]
Methane [CH4]
[N2O]
Rate
1
21
310
By knowing what kind of gases a certain fuel is forming when incinerated, it is possible to do
calculations of their individual GHG impact in carbon dioxide equivalents. Each fuel is then
recalculated so that it possible to do a comparison between how much they emit per energy unit.
Examples are shown in table 13
Table 13.The table is showing the calculated ratio of incentives based on
CO2-equivalents when replacing different energy resources.
Source that is replaced
Biogas landfill
SIC Electricity
Gas
Diesel
Oil
Coal
79
Ratio [Euro/MWh]
0,25
0,48
0,22
0,3
0,31
0,38
(SCB, 2006)
62
6.2.4 Landfill versus Incineration
The Kyoto agreement makes it possible to gain money not only by selling a product, but also in
creating new climate smart solutions that decrease the amount of Greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere.
As mentioned before there is a project at the landfill Lomos Los Colorados, north of Santiago. This
landfill is such a project where landfill gas is captured and flared to the air. At this moment there is
no power generation, but it is about to start during 2009.
The estimated capture at the landfill of GHG is 50%80 and the fractions of GHG are presented in
appendix 8. The table shows that the dominating gases are methane and carbon dioxide and that the
fraction is about 50% each.
The landfill has an estimated life span until 205281. The methane generation constant decay constant
is based on local climate such as temperature, precipitation and set to be 0,07 [1/year], L0 describes
the overall methane capacity and is set to be 80,64 [m3/Mg]82. The estimated life span for 1 metric
ton is set to be 50 years. The carbon dioxide emitted from the landfill is expelled from the calculation
of GHG for all quantities with origin from biomass such as food. Only the carbon dioxide emitted
from fossil waste is included in the calculation.
For calculation of the rate of effect from the different GHG it is common to use the system of carbon
dioxide equivalents and is presented table 13. Because of the domination of Carbon dioxide and
methane gas, only these gases are used for the calculation.
When calculating the amounts of GHG from a WTE-plant it is necessary to know the amount of
carbon dioxide with origin from fossil waste, such as plastics. This amount is calculated to be 15% and
must be calculated separately.
Because of the project at the landfill the calculated rate of GHG is set be 50%, e.g. the calculations
are based on the half that is emitted to air. The industries that will be connected to the grid and who
today use fossil energy or electric energy is also calculated as carbon dioxide equivalents.
When waste is incinerated the amount of methane emitted is expected to be low and the main post
is carbon dioxide.
6.2.5 Incomes
Incomes for a WTE-plant are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Electricity (69 €/MWh)
Steam, individual contracts, 10% lower price than today (between 24-45 €/MWh)
District cooling, individual contracts, 10 % lower than today (between 22-59 €/MWh)
Gate-Fee (9,38 €/tonneWaste)
Carbon Credits, waste destruction (2,52 €/tonneWaste)
Carbon Credits, green energy (3,46 €/MWh)
ERNC benefit (8 €/MWh)
Electricity installation (6 €/kW and month)
80
(UN, 2006)
(Arias, 2008)
82
(United Nations, 2006)
81
63
6.2.6 Profitability
Two methods have been used to calculate the profit of the plants. The first method is called net
present value, NPV, and it shows the value and the magnitude of a project. Internal Rate of Return,
IRR, is the other method and it is an indicator of the efficiency or quality of an investment.
400
350
Net Present Value [M. Euro]
300
250
200
100 MW
150
100
IRR=8,70%
IRR= 13,71%
60 MW
50
0
-50
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16% 18% 20% 22% 24%
-100
Discount Rate
Figure 48. The net present value as a function of the discount rate for the two scenarios.
As shown in figure 48, IRR for the 60 MW scenario is 8,70 % and 13,71 % for the 100 MW scenario.
Discount rate for a project at KDM is between 12-14 %. This gives a negative, non profitable, NPV for
the 60 MW investment. The 100 MW-scenario is inside the range and a discount rate of 12 % would
generate a positive value. The incinerator of 100 MW is shown to be more profitable so all
calculations in the future will only be based on that scenario.
A third method has therefore been used to see if an installation is profitable. The discounted pay-off
method is calculated with respect to the discount rate. All Incomes must then be discounted to the
present value before addition83.
83
(Wikipedia)
64
M. Euro
Discounted pay-back time
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
-120
-140
-160
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
100 MW
60 MW
Years
Figure 49. Pay-back time shown in years for the two cases.
KDM consider a project as good if the pay-back time is at 60 % or less of its lifetime. As shown in
figure 49. The 60 MW plant repays first after 23 years and is as earlier shown unprofitable. After 12
years that is about 50 % of a plants lifetime, the 100 MW has been repaid which makes the project
profitable.
6.2.6.1 Sensibility analysis
A sensibility analysis has been made where the gate-fee income and energy price has been varied.
These analyses are shown in Figures 50 and 51.
Gate-fee variation 100 MW plant
400
350
Net Present Value [M. Euro]
300
250
200
IRR=13,71%
150
IRR=18,89%
9,38 €/ton
20 €/ton
IRR=16,40%
100
30 €/ton
50
0
0%
2%
4%
6%
8% 10% 12% 14% 16% 18% 20% 22% 24%
-50
-100
Discount Rate
Figure 50. Variation in NPV depending on the gate-fee price for the 100 MW plant.
65
The analysis, presented in Figure 50, is showing that the project definitely would satisfy KDM:s
conditions if the gate-fee income increased to 20 €/tonne (all the other parameters constant). As the
gate-fee has increased about 10 % annually the last years and is still low compared to surrounding
countries an analysis has not been made with a reduced gate-fee.
Energy price variation 100 MW
500
300
Today
200
IRR=13,71%
IRR=17,36%
IRR=22,70%
22%
20 % increase
18%
Net Present Value [M. Euro]
400
50 % increase
100
-100
24%
20%
16%
14%
12%
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
0
Discount Rate
Figure 51. Variation in NPV depending on the energy price for the 100 MW plant.
As seen in Figure 51 a variation of the energy price has a bigger effect on the profitability of a plant
than the gate-fee variation.
The electricity price in Chile has increased the last years and has an uncertain future. Steam and it´s
price that today is produced from fossil fuels has also an uncertain future. A low fossil fuel price has
been used in “today’s” calculations. As a consequence of that, only an increased energy price has
been studied.
66
6.3 The environmental impact
Beside the economical results, environmental impact of a WTE-plant in contaminated Metropolitana
Region has been studied. There are two types of environmental impacts that have been studied; the
impact of greenhouse gases and the pollutants.
6.3.1 Pollutants
The industries are using different type of fuels to provide themselves with steam. Depending on the
amount of steam needed and type of fuel used there is a big difference between the industries
regarding emissions. From the electric power the industries are provided with district cooling. To
produce that electric power, indirect calculations and pollutions have been made. Those calculations
are based on a ratio on the Chilean electricity grid in tonneCO2/MWh emitted. All the evaluated
emissions are from Swedish industries and power plants (year 2005) that are using natural gas, oil,
diesel and biomass as fuel84. A comparison has been made with emissions from a plant of 100 MW.
The results are shown in Table 14.
Table 14. Estimated emissions from the industries and from the plant in tonnes per year. The indirect
emissions from industries are underlined.
1
NOx
[tonne/year]
0,07
SO2
[tonne/year]
0,19
PM
[tonne/year]
0,0028
VOC
[tonne/year]
0,0034
CO
[tonne/year]
0,02
2
2,50
0,00
0,23
0,10
0,75
3
21,58
2,70
5,99
0,22
3,24
3
2,09
5,94
0,09
0,10
0,52
4
17,94
0,08
0,70
1,93
7,54
5
5,28
0,00
0,23
0,21
1,58
6
5,40
0,67
1,50
0,05
0,81
7
34,25
6,85
2,69
17,13
102,76
7
5,99
16,96
0,25
0,30
1,50
8
72,57
46,80
80,92
3,08
18,65
Total, Direct
159,52
57,10
92,27
22,72
135,32
Total, Indirect
8,15
23,08
0,34
0,41
2,04
Total
167,67
80,18
92,61
23,13
137,36
Plant 100 MW
34,60
11,25
2,65
16,8
84,06
Emission savings
133,50
68,93
89,96
6,33
53,30
Industry\Pollutant
A comparison was made with guarantees from the supplier for VOC and CO as there is no plant with
that size and same flue gas system in Sweden. The guarantee from supplier is that a flue gas volume
of 209127 Nm3/hour will fulfill the Chilean and RM norms. For SO2 and PM a comparison has been
made with Ryaverken in Borås, Sweden, that are using same system for flue gas cleaning of those
pollutants. Comparison of NOx emissions have been made with a mean value from Sysav P3 (Malmö,
Sweden) and Korsta F5 (Sundsvall, Sweden) emissions during 2007. Those plants use SCR as system
for capturing NOx just like a prospected plant in Santiago.
84
(Naturvårdsverket, 2006)
67
From table 14 it is possible to see that an environmental saving, concerning pollutants, would be
made installing a WTE-plant. This environmental save is illustrated in figure 52 below.
180
160
140
ton/year
120
100
Industries
80
WTE-plant
60
40
20
0
NOx
SO2
PM
VOC
CO
Figure 52. Emissions illustrated from the industries and the WTE-plant in tonnes per year.
6.3.2 Greenhouse gases
The emissions of greenhouse gases are divided in two parts. One part is dealing with the emissions
from industries in form of fossil fuel incineration. The second part is concerning uncatchable biogas
that today is emitting greenhouse gases from the landfill.
6.3.2.1 Industrial CO2eq emissions
All the industries except one are using fossil fuels for incineration. For the industry that is using
biomass as fuel today, only emissions of CH4 and N2O are calculated as greenhouse gas emissions86.
Indirect emissions of CO2eq from electricity are based on the ratio mentioned in chapter 6.3.1.
Table 15. Greenhouse gas emissions in tonnes per year. The indirect emissions are included. Emissions
of CO2, CH4 and N2O are converted and shown in CO2eq from conversion factors shown in table 12.
Industry
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Sum/ Greenhouse
gas
CO2 [tonne/year]
52
2867
11496
9374
7002
2222
4655
47765
85432
CH4 [tonne/year]
0
1
7
3
2
1
222
24
261
N2O [tonne/year]
2
29
128
95
71
17
686
2250
3278
Sum/Industry
54
2897
11631
9472
7075
2240
5563
50038
85
88971
As shown in table 15, 88971 tonnes of CO2eq are emitted to the atmosphere from the industries
today.
85
86
(Naturvårdsverket, 2006)
(Lidén)
68
6.3.2.2 Greenhouse gas emissions from the landfill
At the landfill, estimation is made that 50 % of the landfill gas is captured today. The greenhouse gas
reduction from a plant installation would be the remaining 50 % of the gas minus the emissions from
a plant of CH4 and N2O. All the calculations are shown in appendix 8. Around 316800 tonnes of waste
will annually be incinerated and the fossil amount in Chilean waste is about 15 %. A comparison
between a system of incineration and capturing CO2eq by biogas production is shown in table 16
below.
Table 16. Greenhouse gas emissions from waste depositing and waste incineration in tonnes per year.
Emissions of CO2, CH4 and N2O are converted and shown in CO2eq from conversion factors shown in
table 12.
Today´s system
Waste incineration
Difference
CO2[tonne/year]
8690
80893
-72203
CH4[tonne/year]
186509
339
186170
N2O[tonne/year]
0
6003
-6003
Total
87
195199
88
87235
107964
As shown in tables’ 15 and 16 a total annual save of 196935 tonnes CO2eq would be made by
installing a WTE-plant.
87
88
(United Nations, 2006)
(Naturvårdsverket, 2006)
69
7 Conclusions
The prefeasibility study is showing that waste incineration would be a possible solution for waste
management in Chile. Calculated heat value of the MSW in the transfer station of Quilicura is 2,83
MWh/tonne which is well sufficient as fuel.
A reciprocating grate is able to incinerate the waste of Santiago without any pretreatment needed
and is therefore chosen as incinerator. Flue gas cleaning consisting of a cyclone, ESP, NID/Turbosorp
and SCR have together with suppliers been chosen. The limits for emissions of NOx in Region
Metropolitana are making SCR as the only possible solution for a 100 MW plant though the
investment is more costly.
A location at Lampa, close to the transfer station of Quilicura, has been chosen. It will be located in
an industrial area, close to the railway and surrounding roads. It is as well close to industries that
have a need of steam and cooling.
Two scenarios have been studied, a 60 MW plant and a 100 MW plant. The 60 MW showed a
negative NPV which made the project unprofitable. A 100 MW plant showed a positive NPV and payoff time of 12 years which makes the project profitable. All the calculations have therefore been
made on the 100 MW solution. Sensibility analyses have as well been made where the gate-fee and
the energy price has been varied.
The simulations showed it profitable to connect the surrounding industries though the big
investment cost for pipes and ACM. A contact was established with eight industries. They have a total
maximum need of 81,5 tonne steam per hour and a annual need of 315436 MWh with a varying
pressure between 10 and 13 bar. The steam of 14,5 bar will therefore be extracted from the turbine.
Four industries have a total yearly need of cooling of 46885 MWh. The steam is expanding through
the turbine to 0,5 bar (81 ˚C) where it is condensing in a ACM and the district cooling is produced
and distributed (see chapter 6.1.4).
Further studies are needed of:
•
•
daily variations in industries production.
amount of steam that is heat exchanged/directly used in the process.
An assumption of all steam being exchanged and no daily variations has been made.
Beside the production of steam and district cooling about 139174 MWh of electric power are
annually produced. This gives a mean total efficiency of the plant of 0,64 and a alpha value of 0,3.
The environmental impact has as well been studied for a 100 MW plant. As the industries today
mainly use fossil fuels for steam production and the waste depositing emits methane an annual
reduction of 196935 tonnes CO2eq would be made by installing a WTE-plant.
A reduction of pollutants, SO2, NOx, MP, CO and VOC would as well be made (see chapter 6.3.1).
70
8 Discussion
Starting off with waste incineration on a continent that is depositing all the waste is concerning,
political, social, environmental and economical aspects. All those aspects together with other
possible scenarios and uncertainties in the calculations are considered in the discussion.
8.1 Politics and social aspects
If a WTE-plant will become reality the project will need the approval of the politics, both by the
government and in the municipalities. This year there will be presidential election in Chile and there
are possibilities of a change from the socialist president to a right-wing president. Much of the future
is depending on their position when it comes to climate- and energy politics in the realization of a
WTE-plant.
The municipalities where the WTE-plant will be situated needs to approve the plant and show the
benefits of a WTE-plant. The population that lives close to the site also needs to be informed about
the benefits concerning air quality, green energy and use of a cogeneration plant. There is also need
for motivating the placement of the plant in the RM-region and close to the industries that will be
supplied with steam and district cooling.
There are some different ways of constructing and operating a plant like this. Because of the great
investment there will be need for a major investor that has the capital and the possibility of putting
in money in such a long term investment. The benefits of a joint venture between a Chilean company
and a big international are several.
•
•
•
•
Easier to motivate when there are national interests involved
Knowledge about the Chilean market
Knowledge about how such a plant should be built and contacts with suppliers and
engineering.
Using knowledge of previous investments.
Today there is a lack of knowledge when it comes to operating a WTE-plant, so there will be need for
basic know-how about how to operate a plant. There are some alternatives:
•
•
BOT, Build-Operate-Transfer. The plant is built by an international company which operates
the plant and at the same time teaching a local operator before transferring the plant to this
operator.
BOO, Build-Operate-Own. An international company build, operates and continues to own
the plant.
The industries that will be connected to the system have to be informed and see the benefits of
changing their production and relying on an external supplier of energy. There are such suppliers
already in the region, but they use bio-mass incinerators placed on site at the industries.
Because of the long term investment there is also need to have long term agreements about
handling the waste for the operator of the plant. If there are other actors that take care of the waste
it might lead to a higher cost for getting waste to the plant.
71
There are several incomes that come from incentives, both from the Kyoto agreement and the
Chilean government. These incentives are limited in time and it is hard to tell what will come after
these. The Kyoto agreement ends at 2012 and ERNC a bit further at 2035.
8.2 Climate and environmental
A plant like this would contribute to Chile’s energy goals concerning increasing the amount of ERNC.
There are also local benefits of substituting existing incinerators of fossil fuels that pollutes the air in
the region with a WTE-plant, especially for steam generation where the production of steam comes
from incinerators. The production of district cooling has its benefits when it comes to the national
use of electricity. By substituting electrical driven cooling machines by an ACM the electricity can be
used elsewhere. A combined heat and power plant would decrease the need of fossil fuel both in the
industry sector and the electricity production.
8.3 Waste improvements from an incineration point of view
The waste that comes to the transfer station is a mix of all kind of waste and there is a huge potential
of recycling some of it. Glass, ceramics and metals are all decreasing the heat value of the waste
because of no contribution of organic compounds. All three of them will be in the ash after the
incineration.
One other way to increase the heat value of the waste would be to separate the food waste from the
rest and thereby sorting out the major part of the humidity and obtain a dryer fuel. The food waste
can be composted or used in anaerobic digestion for production of biogas.
One other improvement of the waste would be to sort out PVC-plastics from the waste. PVC plastics
consist of high amounts of chloride and when incinerated it produces highly toxic gases and
therefore needs more chemicals for the flue gas cleaning and leads to increased corrosion.
8.4 Uncertainties
There are some expectations and uncertainties in the project:
•
•
•
•
•
What will happen after the end of the Kyoto agreement? The simulation is based on a system
with incomes from the trade of carbon credits.
The industries have some variations in need of temperature and pressure that are simplified
in this project.
There is need of more investigations when it comes to the water supply on site.
The calculated hours of operation are high for plant on a new market with new staff.
The prices for the components of the plant are based on estimated values from the suppliers
and it is therefore need of actual offers from them.
8.5 Other Solutions
Beside a 60 or 100 MW plant there are several other solutions possible for waste incineration. A
Swedish solution where the heat after the turbine is heat exchanged to a grid of district heating,
steam or district cooling is not dominating around the world. Possibilities to just produce electric
power from a plant in Santiago have not been studied. The profit and the total efficiency of a plant
are not as good as with a cogeneration plant but there is no need of contact with
industries/households and it is easier to find a good location. Such a plant would be possible to
construct at the landfill of KDM assuming that the site would be possible to provide with water.
72
A second solution would be to construct a small plant on a big industry site, where the size of the
plant would be decided by the steam, hot water and district cooling needed for that industry.
Depending on type of the industries process, parts of the waste incinerated could directly be taken
from the waste produced by the industry.
A third possible solution could be to establish the first plant outside Region Metropolitana. There are
two big cities in the fifth region, west of Santiago, Valparaiso and Viña del Mar, where a plant could
be constructed. There are several big industries around the area of “Puerto Ventanas” where there is
a possible need of steam. Other laws concerning emissions would as well make an investment
outside RM less costly. Because of the closeness to South Pacific Ocean it would be possible to
construct a plant that is just producing electric power and easy get rid of the waste heat by heat
exchanging it with the ocean.
8.6 Future
In the future a WTE-plant probably will be built in Chile. Beside the Swedish interests, there are
several other companies from other parts of the world that are investigating the potential in the
Chilean market. The lack of electricity that Chile is facing right now is forcing the country to find
alternative energy sources. Chile´s government has shown by incentives like ERNC that they are
supporting a future with more renewable energy sources involved. The Minister of Energy has been
participating in seminaries, with a positive willing, where incineration of waste has been discussed so
the WTE future might be within 5 years.
Seen from a political and social view, the main problem will be to convince local politicians and
people who are living in municipalities why their municipality has been chosen as site for a WTEplant. Waste treatment has through the years been associated with problems so the inhabitants will
probably be skeptical.
Main problem is to find a company that is able and willing to invest in such a project. Different
possible solutions are discussed in 8.1.
Is it realistic that the knowledge of Swedish engineers will be applied in a future plant in Chile? A
good contact and relationship is built up between the parties through the Swedish-Chilean fund,
Master Thesis students etc. This relationship has now to be taken to next level if Sweden wants to be
a part of a future plant. A real feasibility study needs to be made. To fulfill that a team consisting of
experts in waste incineration and the Chilean society must make a longer visit in Chile and cooperate
with a waste treatment company. As almost none of the technique is Swedish, Sweden would
contribute to the project with its knowledge. To continue with only student exchanges within this
area will just give the competitors an advantage though they sooner or later will present a real
project. A well working, profitable, first plant will be able to open up the whole South America as a
market and make the risky first investment into a big business.
73
9 The Authors
The study is written by Marko Amovic and Fredrik Johansson, below it is possible to see the author of each
chapter. MA = Marko Amovic and FJ = Fredrik Johansson.
Abstract (MA)
1 Introduction (MA)
1.1 Background of the cooperation between Borlänge Energi/IVL and Chile (MA)
1.2 Purpose (MA)
1.3 Limitations (FJ)
1.4 Announcements (FJ)
1.5 Method (MA)
2. Background
2.1 Chile (FJ)
2.2 Environmental issues (FJ)
2.3 Waste Treatment (MA)
2.4 Industrial situation (MA)
2.5 Chilean laws for emissions from incineration (MA)
2.6 Energy Industries and Electricity (FJ)
3. Waste incineration
3.1 Incinerators (MA)
3.2 Flue gas cleaning (FJ)
3.3 Comparison with Swedish WTE Plants (MA)
3.4 Water treatment (MA)
3.5 Cooling towers (FJ)
4 Steam Production (MA)
5 District cooling (FJ)
6 Results
6.1.1 Incinerator (MA)
6.1.2 Flue Gas Cleaning (FJ)
6.1.3 Location (MA)
6.1.4. Steam cycle (FJ)
6.1.5 Distribution (MA)
6.1.6 Cooling tower (FJ)
6.1.7 Energy balances (FJ)
6.1.8 Efficiencies (FJ)
6.2 Economy
74
6.2.1 Investment (MA)
6.2.2 Operational Costs (MA)
6.2.3 Results Carbon Credits (FJ)
6.2.4 Landfill versus Incineration (FJ)
6.2.5 Incomes (MA)
6.2.6 Profitability (MA)
6.3 The environmental impact (MA)
7 Conclusions (MA)
8 Discussion
8.1 Politics and social aspects (FJ)
8.2 Climate and environmental (FJ)
8.3 Waste improvements from an incineration point of view (FJ)
8.4 Uncertainties (FJ)
8.5 Other Solutions (MA)
8.6 Future (MA)
75
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78
11 Appendix
79
Appendix 1. Is referred to in chapter 2.3.8.1
80
Appendix 2. A print of the values from the calculator of raw gas. Referred to in chapter 6.1.2
Under figuren finns ett antal anläggningsspecifika data som kan justeras.
Indata
Driftförhållanden
Bränsleflöde
Drifttid
Verkningsgrad
40
ton per timme
8040 timmar per år
88
%
O2-halt e. Panna
6,0
vol-% våt gas
Oförbränt i slagg
5
vikts-% av TS
Oförbränt i filteraska
15
vikts-% av TS
0
0
kg/ton bränsle
kg/ton bränsle
Tillsatser till spärrfilter
Kalk
Aktivt kol
Stofthalter
3
efter spärrfilter
mg/m n torr gas
2500 11% O2
3
mg/m n torr gas
5
11% O2
Andel av S, Cl, F och Br i rågasen (efter panna)
Svavel
Klor
Fluor
Brom
70
75
75
75
efter panna
%
%
%
%
81
Avskiljningsgrad i spärrfilter
Kvicksilver
Svavel
Klor (HCl)
Fluor (HF)
Brom (HBr)
0
0
0
0
0
%
%
%
%
%
Produktion
Panneffekt
99,8 MW
Energiproduktion 2,5 MWh/ton
802,
Energiproduktion 0 GWh per år
Gasdata
O2-halt
O2-halt
CO2-halt
Fukthalt
Rökgasflöde
Rökgasflöde
Rökgasflöde
SO2-halt e.
Panna
HCl-halt e.
Panna
HF-halt e. Panna
HBr-halt e.
Panna
Askbalans
Slagg och
pannaska
Spärrfilterstoft
Spärrfilterstoft
Stoftutsläpp
6,0 vol-% våt gas
7,5 vol-% torr gas
11,3 vol-% torr gas
19,6 vol-%
211
872 m3n/h
170
449 m3n/h torr gas
230
820 m3n/h torr gas vid 11% O2
213 mg/m3n torr gas vid 11% O2
333 mg/m3n torr gas vid 11% O2
3
mg/m3n torr gas vid 11% O2
0
mg/m3n torr gas vid 11% O2
271
5 kg/h TS inklusive oförbränt
576 kg/h TS inklusive oförbränt
kg/h TS inklusive oförbränt
576 och additiv
1,15 kg/h TS
Stökiometri i
spärrfiltret
SR totalt
[Ca/(S+0.5*(Cl+F+B
r))]
0,0 mol/mol
82
Spårelement
I slagg och
pannaska
Inkl. oförbränt
g/t
TS
kg/år
I spärrfilteraska
Inkl. oförbränt och
absorbenter
g/t TS
kg/år
Antimon (Sb)
Arsenik (As)
0
2
0
48
0
22
0
101
Bly (Pb)
Kadmium (Cd)
552
11
12047
241
2208
55
10222
256
Kobolt (Co)
0
0
0
Koppar (Cu)
0
123
04
268576
24608
Krom (Cr)
779
17001
2337
Kvicksilver (Hg)
0
2
1
Mangan (Mn)
Nickel (Ni)
0
18
0
393
0
36
Tallium (Tl)
0
0
0
Vanadin (V)
0
136
6
0
0
29809
13656
Zink (Zn)
* inklusive
gasformigt Hg
Beteckning:
I
stoftutsläp
pet
g/t
TS
0
44
551
9
110
Fördelning i %
Slagg
och
kg/ panna Spärr
år
ska
filter Stoft
0
0
#### #### ####
#### ### ###
32,0 67,8 0,27
51 54,0 45,8 0,23
1 48,4 51,4 0,21
#### #### ####
0 #### ### ###
57
1 70,1 29,7 0,15
0
615
113940 20
389
10818
4
36 61,0 38,8 0,13
794
7
7 * 74 1,9
8,1 90,0
#### #### ####
0
0
0 #### ### ###
167
90
1 70,1 29,7 0,15
#### #### ####
0
0
0 #### ### ###
#### #### ####
0
0
0 #### ### ###
273 25
63230 12
3 32,0 67,8 0,27
Anläggning och
driftfall
Utsläpp till
luft
Antimon (Sb)
Arsenik (As)
Bly (Pb)
Kadmium (Cd)
Kobolt (Co)
ug/m3n tg vid
0,0 11% O2
ug/m3n tg vid
0,2 11% O2
ug/m3n tg vid
27,6 11% O2
ug/m3n tg vid
0,6 11% O2
ug/m3n tg vid
0,0 11% O2
83
Klor (HCl)
307, ug/m3n tg vid
6 11% O2
ug/m3n tg vid
19,5 11% O2
ug/m3n tg vid 11% O2 (Inklusive
39,7 gasformigt)
ug/m3n tg vid
0,0 11% O2
ug/m3n tg vid
0,4 11% O2
ug/m3n tg vid
0,0 11% O2
ug/m3n tg vid
0,0 11% O2
136, ug/m3n tg vid
6 11% O2
333,
1 mg/m3n tg vid 11% O2
Fluor (HF)
2,5 mg/m3n tg vid 11% O2
Brom (HBr)
Svavel (SO2)
0,2 mg/m3n tg vid 11% O2
213,
0 mg/m3n tg vid 11% O2
Beteckning:
Anläggning och
driftfall
Koppar (Cu)
Krom (Cr)
Kvicksilver (Hg)
Mangan (Mn)
Nickel (Ni)
Tallium (Tl)
Vanadin (V)
Zink (Zn)
Appendix 3. Technical specification for the AACM. Referred to in chapter 6.1.4.2
Colibri Technical Specification:
- Design code: PED/AD-Merkblätter (other codes on request)
- Refrigeration capacity: 3.700 kW
- Cooling mode: brine cooling
- Evaporation temperature: -20°C
- Brine inlet: -10°C
- Brine outlet: -15°C
- Steam driving pressure: approx. 4 bara
- Steam driving energy: 7.900 kW
- Wet bulb temperature: 23°C
- Cooling water supply: 30°C
- Cooling water return: 35°C
- COP: 0,47
- Electricity consumption: approx. 10% of refrigeration load including solution pump and cooling
towers
- Nominal dimensions: not designed yet
- Delivery time: not fixed yet
84
- Rough budgetary price: 2 Mio. Euro
Above technical data like temperatures, capacities, etc. can be adjusted within certain limits.
Remarks:
The steam will be condensed at approx. 4 bara and sent back as condensate of 4 bara.
Appendix 4. The table shows the individual use of energy for the industries. June is marked grey
because of shutdown of plant during this month. Referred to in chapter 6.1.4.
100 MW
To
Industries
Total Steam
Flow
Industry
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
2 [MWh]
3 [MWh] 4 [MWh] 5 [MWh] 6 [MWh] 7 [MWh] 8 [MWh]
295
2921
3383
2492
581
8345
10080
267
2383
3056
2251
525
6808
10080
295
2276
3383
2492
581
6502
10080
286
2131
3274
2412
563
6089
10080
295
1266
3383
2492
581
3616
10080
286
1185
3274
2412
563
3386
10080
295
1266
3383
2492
581
3616
10080
295
2276
3383
2492
581
6502
10080
286
2131
3274
2412
563
6089
10080
295
2276
3383
2492
581
6502
10080
286
2735
3274
2412
563
7815
10080
295
2921
3383
2492
581
8345
10080
Energy Flow
120 [tonnes/h]
Need of cool
[MWh]
Industry
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
1 [MWh]
Energy required (steam) in the
2 [MWh] 3 [MWh] 7 [MWh] ACM [MWh]
30
394
1231
3518
7390
27
356
1005
2870
6082
30
394
959
2741
5892
29
381
898
2567
5537
30
394
534
1524
3545
29
381
500
1428
3339
30
394
534
1524
3545
30
394
959
2741
5892
29
381
898
2567
5537
30
394
959
2741
5892
29
381
1153
3295
6940
85
Dec
30
394
1231
3518
7390
86
Appendix 5. The table over the efficiencies for the plant. June is marked grey because of
shutdown of plant during this month. Referred to in chapter 6.1.4.3
Cooling process
Effect needed in
cooling processes
[MW]
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
m, cooling water Energy
[kg/s]
[MWh]
7
209
6
191
6
167
5
162
3
100
3
98
3
100
6
167
5
162
6
167
7
203
7
209
Velocity v massflow
[m/s]
[tonnes/h]
5173
3
753
4257
3
686
4124
2
600
3876
2
583
2482
1
361
2337
1
351
2482
1
361
4124
2
600
3876
2
583
4124
2
600
4858
3
730
5173
3
753
87
Appendix 6. The table over the calculations for the Cooling tower. June is marked grey because of
shutdown of plant during this month. Referred to in chapter 6.1.5
Ave
T
high
[°C]
Worst
case,
dimension
ed CT
29
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
Maj
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Okt
Nov
Dec
29
29
27
22
18
14
14
16
18
22
25
28
Fan
Ave Steam
shaft
T
flow
Heat power
low [tonnes Load T high
[°C] /h]
[MW] [kW]
12
12
9
7
5
3
3
4
6
7
9
11
120
75
629
36
39
44
46
56
57
57
45
46
45
38
37
35
36
39
40
46
46
46
40
40
39
36
35
224
235
243
230
248
237
236
210
218
227
216
222
Fan
shaft
power
T low
[kW]
174
182
188
188
211
208
207
181
187
186
173
173
Electric
ity
Electrici
fans
ty fans
day
night
Total
[MWh] [MWh] [MWh]
83
79
90
83
92
85
88
78
78
84
78
83
65
61
70
68
78
75
77
67
67
69
62
64
148
140
160
150
171
160
165
145
146
154
140
147
Need of
cooling
of in
condens
er
[MWh]
24682
29727
44537
46391
75257
74271
75762
46831
47025
45848
27927
25521
Appendix 7. A table over the efficiencies for the plant. June is marked grey because of shutdown
of plant during this month. Referred to in chapter 6.1.7
Alpha value
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Mean
0,26
0,27
0,30
0,31
0,39
0,39
0,39
0,30
0,31
0,30
0,26
0,26
0,30
Total Efficiency
0,70
0,68
0,64
0,63
0,55
0,54
0,55
0,63
0,63
0,64
0,69
0,70
0,64
88
Appendix 8. Calculations of greenhouse gas emissions from biogas capturing and incineration
(see chapter 6.3.2.2 and 6.2.3)
By biogas capturing
Following series is describing the flow rate [m3/year] of landfillgas that is emitted year(i)
=sum from opening year+1 (I=1)
through year of projection
= maximum expected LFG
generation flow rate (m3/yr)
= methane generation decay
k
rate constant (1/yr)
= ultimate methane generation
Lo
potential (m3/Mg)
= mass of solid waste deposited
Mi
in the i:th year (tonnes)
= age of the waste deposited in
ti
the ith year (years)
An integration of the formula gives
2 × ݇ × ‫ܮ‬0 × ‫׬ ݅ܯ‬0 ݁ −݇‫ ݅ ݐ‬dt
−161,28 × [݁ −݇‫] ݅ ݐ‬50
0
Methane amount [volume%]
CO2 amount [volume%]
50
0,07
80,64
1
1 – 50
156,4
Landfill gas composition
50%
50%
Density, CH4 [kg/m3]
Density CO2 [kg/m3]
Density biogas [kg/m3]
0,717
Methane amount [mass%]
1,98
CO2 amount [mass%]
26,59%
73,41%
Capturing CO2e by biogas production
50 years biogas production
50 years biogas production
[m3/tonne waste]
[kg/tonne waste]
156,4
50 years biogas production
CH4/tonne waste]
1,3485
[kg
Yearly Amount [Tonne/Year]
210,9054
316 800
50 years biogas production [kg
CO2/tonne waste]
Percentage of bio gas captured
154,836
50,00%
Total amount of CO2 [tonne
CO2/50years]
Amount captured [tonne/year]
8881,39296
49052,0448
158400
Uncaptured part of methane
Wasteamount that is fossil,
[tonne CH4/50years]
from CH4 and CO2 [tonne
fossil/50years]
56,0694
Amount captured [tonne
CH4/50years]
8881,39296
8690,015664
Greenhouse effect from biogas capturing
CH4 (21 times stronger)[tonne
CO2 [tonne CO2e]
CO2e]
8690,015664
Total [tonne CO2e/year]
186509,2522
195199,2678
89
100 MW WTE-plant Installed
Amount to incinerate
[Tonne/Year]
Heatvalue waste KDM [MWh/tonne]
316800
2,83
Emissions of greenhouse gases from a WTE-plant
CH4 [kg/MWh]
N2O [kg/MWh]
0,018
CH4 [kg/tonne]
N2O [kg/tonne]
0,05094
CH4 [tonne/year]
CO2 fossil [kg/tonne
waste]
0,0216
255,345
CO2 fossil [tonne/year]
0,061128
80893,296
N2O [tonne/year]
16,137792
19,3653504
Greenhouse effect from an future system with incineration
CO2
CH4 (21 times stronger)
80893,296
92,73%
Total (CO2e tonne/year)
N2O (310 times stronger)
338,893632
0,39%
6003,258624
6,88%
87235,44826
90
91
Appendix 9: Incomes, costs, investment and the other economical calculations made for the 100 MW plant (see 6.2.5)
Years
Total Investment [€]
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
-131 825 754
Incomes
Gate-fee
Electricity
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
Steam
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
Remote Cooling
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
Net energy income
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
Carbon Credits (Waste destruction)
798 336
798 336
798 336
798 336
798 336
798 336
Carbon Credits (Green Energy)
923 719
923 719
923 719
923 719
923 719
923 719
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
969 029
969 029
969 029
969 029
969 029
969 029
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
Net carbon income
ERNC benefit
Payment for installation
Total other incomes
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
Total Incomes
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
Personnal
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
Water
-12 309
-12 309
-12 309
-12 309
-12 309
-12 309
Chemicals
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
Costs
Maintenance
Internal electricity use
1/7
Depreciation(Years)
20
-6 591 288
-6 591 288
-6 591 288
-6 591 288
-6 591 288
-6 591 288
-11 764 857
-11 764 857
-11 764 857
-11 764 857
-11 764 857
-11 764 857
-131 825 754
18 579 713
18 579 713
18 579 713
18 579 713
18 579 713
18 579 713
17%
3 158 551
3 158 551
3 158 551
3 158 551
3 158 551
3 158 551
15 421 161
15 421 161
15 421 161
15 421 161
15 421 161
15 421 161
6 591 288
6 591 288
6 591 288
6 591 288
6 591 288
6 591 288
22 012 449
Total
Profit before taxes (EBITDA)
Taxes on Profit
Net profit
Discount Rate
IRR
12%
14 607 725
13,71%
12 349 276
Internal Rate
8%
Depreciation(Years)
20
Net Cashflow
Discounted Pay back period
22 012 449
22 012 449
22 012 449
22 012 449
22 012 449
-131 825 754
19 653 972
17 548 190
15 668 027
13 989 309
12 490 455
11 152 192
-131 825 754
-112 171 782
-94 623 592
-78 955 565
-64 966 256
-52 475 801
-41 323 609
92
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
798 336
798 336
798 336
798 336
798 336
798 336
798 336
798 336
798 336
798 336
923 719
923 719
923 719
923 719
923 719
923 719
923 719
923 719
923 719
923 719
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
969 029
969 029
969 029
969 029
969 029
969 029
969 029
969 029
969 029
969 029
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
-12 309
-12 309
-12 309
-12 309
-12 309
-12 309
-12 309
-12 309
-12 309
-12 309
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-6 591 288
-6 591 288
-6 591 288
-6 591 288
-6 591 288
-6 591 288
-6 591 288
-6 591 288
-6 591 288
-6 591 288
-11 764 857
-11 764 857
-11 764 857
-11 764 857
-11 764 857
-11 764 857
-11 764 857
-11 764 857
-11 764 857
-11 764 857
18 579 713
18 579 713
18 579 713
18 579 713
18 579 713
18 579 713
18 579 713
18 579 713
18 579 713
18 579 713
3 158 551
3 158 551
3 158 551
3 158 551
3 158 551
3 158 551
3 158 551
3 158 551
3 158 551
3 158 551
15 421 161
15 421 161
15 421 161
15 421 161
15 421 161
15 421 161
15 421 161
15 421 161
15 421 161
15 421 161
6 591 288
6 591 288
6 591 288
6 591 288
6 591 288
6 591 288
6 591 288
6 591 288
6 591 288
6 591 288
22 012 449
22 012 449
22 012 449
22 012 449
22 012 449
22 012 449
22 012 449
22 012 449
22 012 449
22 012 449
9 957 314
8 890 459
7 937 910
7 087 419
6 328 053
5 650 047
5 044 685
4 504 183
4 021 592
3 590 707
-31 366 295
-22 475 836
-14 537 926
-7 450 507
-1 122 454
4 527 594
9 572 279
14 076 462
18 098 054
21 688 761
93
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
2 971 584
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
9 151 396
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
12 563 549
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
1 205 692
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
22 920 637
798 336
798 336
798 336
798 336
798 336
798 336
798 336
798 336
798 336
923 719
923 719
923 719
923 719
923 719
923 719
923 719
923 719
923 719
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
1 722 055
969 029
969 029
969 029
969 029
969 029
969 029
969 029
969 029
969 029
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
1 761 264
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
2 730 293
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
30 344 569
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
-884 237
-12 309
-12 309
-12 309
-12 309
-12 308
-12 307
-12 306
-12 305
-12 304
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-520 000
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-2 449 681
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-1 307 342
-6 591 288
-6 591 288
-6 591 288
-6 591 288
0
0
0
0
0
-11 764 857
-11 764 857
-11 764 857
-11 764 857
-5 173 568
-5 173 567
-5 173 566
-5 173 565
-5 173 564
18 579 713
18 579 713
18 579 713
18 579 713
25 171 001
25 171 002
25 171 003
25 171 004
25 171 005
3 158 551
3 158 551
3 158 551
3 158 551
4 279 070
4 279 070
4 279 071
4 279 071
4 279 071
15 421 161
15 421 161
15 421 161
15 421 161
20 891 931
20 891 932
20 891 933
20 891 934
20 891 934
6 591 288
6 591 288
6 591 288
6 591 288
0
0
0
0
0
22 012 449
22 012 449
22 012 449
22 012 449
20 891 931
20 891 932
20 891 933
20 891 934
20 891 934
3 205 989
2 862 490
2 555 795
2 281 959
1 933 749
1 726 562
1 541 573
1 376 405
1 228 933
24 894 750
27 757 240
30 313 035
32 594 994
34 528 743
36 255 305
37 796 878
39 173 282
40 402 215
94
Appendix 10: Incomes, costs, investment and the other economical calculations made for the 60 MW plant (see
Years
Total Investment [€]
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
-103 820 171
Incomes
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
ERNC benefit
Payment for installation
Total other incomes
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
Total Incomes
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
9 929 729
1 688 054
9 929 729
1 688 054
9 929 729
1 688 054
9 929 729
1 688 054
9 929 729
1 688 054
9 929 729
1 688 054
8 241 675
-10 288 560
10 574 314
8 241 675
8 241 675
8 241 675
8 241 675
8 241 675
5 191 009
13 432 684
11 993 468
-91 826 703
5 191 009
13 432 684
10 708 453
-81 118 250
5 191 009
13 432 684
9 561 119
-71 557 131
5 191 009
13 432 684
8 536 713
-63 020 417
5 191 009
13 432 684
7 622 066
-55 398 352
5 191 009
13 432 684
6 805 416
-48 592 936
Gate-fee
Electricity
Steam
Remote Cooling
Net energy income
Carbon Credits (Waste destruction)
Carbon Credits (Green Energy)
Net carbon income
Costs
Personnal
Water
Chemicals
Maintenance
Internal electricity use
Depreciation(Years)
Total
EBITDA
Taxes on Profit
Net profit
Discount Rate
IRR
Internal Rate
Depreciation(Years)
Net Cashflow
Discounted Pay back period
1/7
20
-103 820 171
17%
12,00%
8,70%
8,00%
20
-103 820 171
-103 820 171
95
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
9 929 729
1 688 054
9 929 729
1 688 054
9 929 729
1 688 054
9 929 729
1 688 054
9 929 729
1 688 054
9 929 729
1 688 054
9 929 729
1 688 054
9 929 729
1 688 054
9 929 729
1 688 054
9 929 729
1 688 054
8 241 675
8 241 675
8 241 675
8 241 675
8 241 675
8 241 675
8 241 675
8 241 675
8 241 675
8 241 675
5 191 009
13 432 684
6 076 264
-42 516 672
5 191 009
13 432 684
5 425 236
-37 091 436
5 191 009
13 432 684
4 843 960
-32 247 476
5 191 009
13 432 684
4 324 965
-27 922 511
5 191 009
13 432 684
3 861 576
-24 060 936
5 191 009
13 432 684
3 447 835
-20 613 100
5 191 009
13 432 684
3 078 424
-17 534 676
5 191 009
13 432 684
2 748 593
-14 786 083
5 191 009
13 432 684
2 454 101
-12 331 981
5 191 009
13 432 684
2 191 162
-10 140 820
96
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
1 782 950
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
5 176 571
8 205 076
1 205 692
14 587 339
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
479 002
509 261
988 263
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
548 108
1 043 712
1 591 820
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
18 950 371
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
-5 191 009
-9 020 641
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
0
-3 829 633
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
0
-3 829 633
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
0
-3 829 633
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
0
-3 829 633
-884 237
-7 386
-312 000
-1 886 500
-739 510
0
-3 829 633
9 929 729
1 688 054
9 929 729
1 688 054
9 929 729
1 688 054
9 929 729
1 688 054
15 120 738
2 570 525
15 120 738
2 570 525
15 120 738
2 570 525
15 120 738
2 570 525
15 120 738
2 570 525
8 241 675
8 241 675
8 241 675
8 241 675
12 550 212
12 550 212
12 550 212
12 550 212
12 550 212
5 191 009
13 432 684
1 956 394
-8 184 425
5 191 009
13 432 684
1 746 781
-6 437 645
5 191 009
13 432 684
1 559 626
-4 878 019
5 191 009
13 432 684
1 392 523
-3 485 496
0
12 550 212
1 161 643
-2 323 853
0
12 550 212
1 037 181
-1 286 672
0
12 550 212
926 055
-360 618
0
12 550 212
826 834
466 217
0
12 550 212
738 245
1 204 462
97
Appendix 11: The need, fuel, cost and distance shown for every industry. Costs for pipe installation and annual costs are shown in red and incomes from the
industries and annual incomes for a plant are shown in blue (see 6.2)
INDUSTRY FACT
Industries
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Condensate
Total
Fuel
Electricity
Gas Natural/Elec
Diesel/Elec
Gas Natural
Gas Natural
Diesel
Biomass/Elec
Coal/Fuel Oil
Industries
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
100 MW
60 MW
Green energy,
steam [€/year]
376
21 918
82 768
67 489
50 412
15 997
33 518
278 565
505 123
272 478
Need of Steam
[MWh/Year]
0
3479
29974
39287
0
6750
85640
120960
Need of
Cooling
[MWh/Year]
348
4640
10862
0
29346
0
31035
0
286090
76231
INCOMES FROM INDUSTRIES
Green energy,
electricity
[€/year] Steam [€/year]
0
0
0
125 357
0
1 301 791
0
1 415 585
0
2 248 058
0
281 852
0
2 832 433
0
4 358 473
0
12 563 549
8 205 076
Max
Steamflow
[tonne/h]
0,00
0,52
8,27
8,13
14,08
1,42
23,62
25,44
2,00
83,5
Cooling
[MW]
0,14
0,56
1,72
0,00
0,00
0,00
4,90
0,00
Extra
distance [m]
1500
600
2900
500
300
650
1500
3800
Todays costs for industries
Distance
Cost
from Plant
electricity
[m]
[€/MWh]
1500
80,00
600
87,35
2900
80,00
500
0,00
300
0,00
650
0,00
1500
80,00
3800
0,00
Cost steam
[€/MWh]
0,00
43,68
50,61
43,68
43,68
50,61
38,54
43,68
Reduced price by 10 %
Cost
electricity Cost steam
[€/MWh]
[€/MWh]
22,5
0,00
78,62
39,31
22,5
45,55
0
39,31
0
39,31
0
45,55
22,5
34,69
0
39,31
7,315648
COST CONNECTING INDUSTRIES
Cooling
[€/year]
7 830
364 778
244 402
0
0
0
698 290
0
1 205 692
1 205 692
Steam pipe
costs [€]
490 559
196 223
948 413
163 520
78 840
170 820
340 179
1 242 749
3 631 302
2 388 554
Condensate
pipe costs [€]
1 360 862
544 345
2 631 001
377 256
147 022
318 547
735 108
1 862 274
7 976 414
6 114 141
Cooling pipe
costs [€]
432 000
172 800
835 200
144 000
86 400
187 200
432 000
0
2 289 600
2 289 600
Total
Work costs Cooling Tower + AKM investment
[€] [€]
connection[€]
50 353
20 141
97 350
16 784
10 071
21 820
50 353
127 562
528 417
1 215 153
15 641 728
266 872
1 215 153
12 275 161
98
Annual Incomes
60 MW
100 MW
Gate fee [€/year]
1 782 950
2 971 584
Electricity, to 14.5 bar
[€/year]
4 623 830
7 706 383
Electricity,
14.5-0.5 bar
[€/year]
552 741
1 445 014
Total
Electricity
income
5 176 571
9 151 396
No deposit
[€/year]
479 002
798 336
Green
Energy, SIC
[€/year]
236 782
418 596
Total Green
Energy
[€/year]
509 261
923 719
ERNC benefit
[€/year]
548 108
969 029
Payment for
installation
[€/year]
1 043 712
1 761 264
Annual Costs
60 MW
100 MW
Costs employees
[€]
Water [€]
884 237
884 237
Internal
Electricity
Total Yearly
Chemicals Maintenance
Use
cost
7 386
312 000
1 830 900
739 510
3 774 033
12 309
520 000
2 323 681
1 307 342
5 047 569
99
Appendix 12: Equation below is used to calculate the pressure drop inside steam pipes. The dP is as well shown between the different industries. (see
6.1.4.4.1)
The pressure drop in saturated steam distribution pipes can be calculated as
dp = 0.6753*106*q2*l*(1 + 91.4/d) / ρ*d5
where
dp = pressure drop (Pa)
q = steam flow rate (kg/h)
l = length of pipe (m)
d=pipe inside diameter (m)
ρ=steam density (kg/m3)
Pressure loss over the distance [bar]
Investment as a function of the pipe size €
Distance [m]
Pressure required at
industry [bar]
Need of steam Steamflow
[kg/h]
[kg/h]
406 mm 323 mm 273 mm
406 mm 323 mm
273 mm
P to 1
1500
No need
0
56020
0,48
1,58
3,84
490 559 394 199
340 179
1 to 2
600
7
0
56020
0,19
0,64
1,53
196 223 157 680
136 072
2 to 3
2900
10
518
55502
0,96
3,15
7,59
948 413 762 118
657 680
3 to 4
500
10
8270
47232
0,12
0,39
0,95
163 520 131 400
113 393
4 to 5
300
12
8127
39105
0,05
0,17
0,41
98 112 78 840
68 036
5 to 6
650
12
14080
25025
0,05
0,15
0,36
212 575 170 820
147 411
6 to 7
1500
10
0,10
0,34
0,81
490 559 394 199
340 179
1,95
6,41
15,49
at 7
Plant to 8 3800
12,5
1416
23609
23609
X
25438
25438
Distance
from
plant to
where
the
pressure
needs to
be 12 bar 6450
100
Appendix 13: Amount of steam that condensate on between the industries. Heat loss is shown in 6.1.4.4.2. The cost and the diameter satisfying the conditions
in 6.1.4.4.2 are as well shown in the appendix.
Condensation
Pipe investment
7-6
6-5
5-4
4-3
3-2
2-Plant
Total
Steam condensating in form of
heat losses [tonne/distance]
0,13
0,06
0,10
0,58
0,12
0,30
1,30
Total amount of steam inside the
pipes at the different industries
[tonne]
23,72
25,20
39,38
48,09
56,48
57,30
57,30
Diameter Condensation pipes
[mm]
711
711
914
1016
1016
1016
Investment cost [€/distance]
1 053 655
147 022
377 256
2 631 001
544 345
1 360 862
6 114 141
Condensation
Pipe diameter [mm]
Cost [€/m]
711
490,07
813
603,27
914
754,51
1016
907,24
101
Appendix 14. Specification of flue gas cleaning system from Alstom referred to in chapter 6.1.2
102
103
104