This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized
by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the
information in books and make it universally accessible.
https://books.google.com
Nedll transfer
|||||
E O Fu F
HN
|
T H E
EP H R A | M.
G IFT
W.
OF
G U R N E Y,
(Class of 1852),
PROF ESS OR
OF
HISTORY
IN
HARVARD
UNIVERSITY,
20 April, 1871.
:
o
A.
-
COMPLETE
GREEK
GRAMMAR
FOR THE USE OF LEARNERS.
BY
JOHN WILLIAM DONALDSON, B.D.,
HEAD-MASTER OF KING EDWARD'S SCHOOL,
BURY ST. EDMUND’S.
LONDON :
JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND.
M. DCCC.XLVIII.
KD (22772
–Z/3 & 4,
#-
--
HARWA
* LibRARY
/97), º&20.
yº ^,
; :
× <!/2
G. // gºv,
*%
...
3& 2
Cº.,
W
".^: 3ºzºc,
.
(****)
(Cambritiqt :
printtu at the Qanibersity press.
HARVARD
UNIVERSITY
in D a ºf
APR 2 1922
TO THE REVEREND
WILLIAM HEPWORTH THOMPSON, M.A.,
SENIOR TUTOR OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.
MY DEAR THOMPSON,
A Mong those who are engaged in the great
business of education, I know no one who is doing more
than yourself for the promotion of Classical Scholarship,
in its widest range and in its highest applications. You
cannot therefore view without interest any attempt to add
strength to the foundations of a superstructure, which
owes so much to your lectures at Trinity; and I feel
assured that you will give a friendly welcome to this little
Book, which exhibits, in a concise form and for the use of
learners, some of the results of those studies and employ
ments which have occupied my time during the long period
of our intimacy.
Believe me, my dear Thompson,
Always sincerely yours,
J. W. DONALDSON.
！！！！！ （！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！----
P. R. E. F. A. C. E.
RATHER more than eighteen months ago, I was informed by the
London Publisher of the New Cratylus that another edition of that
work would be required, and it naturally became a subject of con
sideration, how I could best avail myself of this renewed oppor
tunity of carrying out the objects for which that book was originally
written. Its title had announced it as an attempt to contribute to
the more accurate knowledge of the Greek language, and it sought to
apply the principles of comparative philology, considered in its fullest
extent, not only to Greek Grammar, properly so called, but also to
Greek Lexicography, and to the criticism and exegesis of Greek
authors.
Now, as it was obvious that the Second Edition must
be at least as comprehensive as its predecessor, and must therefore
include all three departments of Greek scholarship, the only mode
of proceeding, in regard to the grammatical division of the larger
work, which seemed likely to lead to practical results, was the
separate publication of a complete Greek Grammar, which would
adapt the conclusions of the larger philological treatise to the use
of younger students. It appeared to me that the publication
of such a work would be little less than a necessary prelude to
the re-appearance of the New Cratylus. There are many things,
which must be stated for the information of a learner, but which
it would be superfluous to detail in a work addressed to the more
finished scholar; and, on the other hand, it would be premature
to state, in a work designed for beginners, the higher processes of
investigation by which the general results have been obtained.
Reserving, therefore, for the forthcoming new edition of my larger
vi
PREFACE.
work, a fuller discussion of those philological principles, without
which, as I believe, there can be no true exposition of Grammar, I
have thought it my duty to undertake the additional labour of
compiling an elementary treatise, for general use, and as an
abridged introduction to a higher range of study. Setting aside
the reasons, which particularly applied to my own employments, the
time seemed to demand such an effort. For although many Greek
Grammars have appeared during the last ten years, there has been
scarcely any attempt' to connect the teaching of the language with
a recognition of those general principles which are obtaining every
day more and more acceptance with all scholars who are worthy
of the name. Even Mr. Jelf has felt it necessary to follow closely
in the steps of Kühner, whose etymological system rests upon an
unsound basis: and other grammars recently published have so
little reference to comparative philology, or linguistic science of any
kind, that it would be difficult to acquit their authors of neglecting
much that they might easily have known.
The objections made to the introduction of a higher and more
philosophical tone into books designed for learners, and the
counter-pleas set up in favour of the old-fashioned Grammars,
generally resolve themselves into appeals to the impracticable
nature of the boyish mind, and therefore too often into admis
sions of the teacher's indolence or incompetency. No one who
has had any large experience in teaching will deny that the school
* It may be proper to mention the apparent exception furnished by
a Grammar, published in Dublin, in which a number of passages ex
tracted verbatim, and in most cases without acknowledgment, from the
New Cratylus, have been engrafted on “Wright's Rudiments of the
Greek Language.” I must take the liberty of suggesting to Mr. G. B.
Wheeler, the editor of the book in question—i.e. of the ninth Edition,
Dublin, 1844, that he might have availed himself, in a more legitimate
manner, of “the leading theories of modern philologists,” and I must,
for the future, reserve to myself the right of abridging my own works.
There was a somewhat similar use of the compiler's scissors in the case
of a reading book entirely composed of selections from Wordsworth's
poems, in which the Laureate very good-humouredly acquiesced.
PREFACE.
VII
boy, as such, is obstinately inattentive, that there is the greatest
difficulty in inducing him to concentrate his thoughts on any
given subject, that he is unwilling to reason, and that the only
mental application which can be expected from him, in the first
instance, is the humblest exercise of his memory. But why is
this Simply because he is uneducated; because his mind is un
trained and undisciplined; because he has not yet attained to that
habit of methodically arranging his thoughts, which it is the busi
ness of his instructor to impart to him, by an active system of
logical teaching. With the great majority of boys in this country,
the Grammars of the classical languages and the Elements of
Euclid are the first and last text-books of reasoning which are ever
placed in their hands; and to argue that no attempt is to be made
to render them better fitted for this purpose, by re-arrangement or
fresh elucidation, simply because the pupils, for whose use they are
designed, have to take the first step in mental discipline, is to
ignore or nullify the most important task which devolves upon an
instructor. It is true that we must begin with relying on the
learner's memory; it is true that there are differences of intellectual
capacity which no amount of instruction will equalize, and that of
many, who start together, very few will attain to a distinguished
developement of the logical faculty; but it is not less true, that all
men are capable of mental cultivation, and that the feeblest reason
ing powers will, to some extent, admit of that educational organi
zation which is conspicuously deficient in the most robust of un
trained understandings. Believing, as I do, that Grammar and
Geometry are still the best vehicles for conveying to the youthful
mind the first rudiments of a liberal education, I am anxious that
the method of teaching them both should be as rational and as
perfect as possible; and I am not deterred by the paucity of able
pupils from submitting all learners to that system of instruction
which will be most consistent with the ulterior progress of the few
who are likely to become original philologers or mathematicians. If
I may be allowed to refer to my own experience, I would bear my
viii
PREFACE.
testimony to the fact, that the memory of boys is as tenacious of
rational explanations as of arbitrary rules, and that any boy, not
absolutely deficient in the ordinary powers of acquisition, any boy,
in fact, who could learn his grammar, and retain it according to
the old system, may be brought, by the diligence of a competent
instructor, to understand the grammatical theorems which he enun
ciates, as well as the propositions of Euclid, which he demonstrates
by rote; and that all those who are capable of the farther progress
in classical and mathematical learning, which is generally tested by
success in the University Examinations, are, in the same proportion,
capable of understanding and applying the higher reasonings of
scientific philology. This would be confirmed by the experience
of others, if examiners were as earnest in insisting upon this more
certain exhibition of intellectual progress, as they are in probing the
extent of the competitors' acquaintance with their Latin and Greek
Vocabulary, or their proficiency in some other branch of knowledge,
which depends upon the strength of their memory alone.
In calling this a complete Greek Grammar, I need hardly say,
that I did not intend to put it forth as containing all that ought to
be written about the Greek language. The fact, that it is intro
ductory to a much larger work by the same writer, is sufficient
to show that it merely professes to include all that ought to be
comprised in an elementary work for the use of younger students.
There are, however, some persons who seem to be unable to dis
tinguish between the eatent of a work, and its completeness,
in reference to a particular object, and who will say, that if this
little book is a complete grammar, the more voluminous works
of Matthiae, and others, must contain much that is superfluous.
I have stated, in p. 4, art. 14, 15, my ideas respecting the complete
ness of a Greek Grammar, and I think that any grammar, however
extensive, would be deficient, as a manual for learners, if it did not
comprehend a sufficient account of the subjects discussed in the
six parts of the present volume. But I do not, on the other hand,
say that the more bulky works, bearing the same title, are super
PREFACE.
ix
fluous. At the time when they first appeared, they were most
valuable contributions to our collective knowledge of the Greek
language; and though much that is contained in Buttmann's
elaborate Formen-lehre, and in Matthiae's copious Syntax, is now
more appropriately drafted into lexicons of the language, there is
still a limited demand for such a Thesaurus, or store-house of facts
grammatically arranged. It must be recollected, however, that if
the work commenced by Buttmann were carried on and completed
in the same spirit, and with reference to our greatly-increased
materials for a survey of the different dialects; and if to this were
added a Syntax amounting to a grammatical commentary on all the
authors, and a Prosody which entered into all the details of metre
and music; we should have a work even more bulky and voluminous
than Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik. No one will suppose that
such an extensive book of reference is indispensable to the ordinary
student of any language. A great deal must necessarily be left to the
Lexicon, the Commentary, and the oral expositions of the teacher:
or if the student is to study at an early period some larger work on
the subject of grammar, it should rather be one which dwells on
the principles of philology than a treatise on dialects, or idioms,
which he will learn more gradually and better by a perusal of the
most important of the Greek authors, and by well-regulated practice
in Greek composition. For these reasons, I have, in common with
many previous grammarians, written with especial reference to the
Attic dialect only; and in every part of the following work have
sought rather to exhibit those phenomena which are suggestive, and
illustrative of general principles, than to accumulate forms of words
and examples of construction.
The whole of this book presumes a reference to what I have
already published in some form, and with more or less of complete
ness. The first four parts rest upon the New Cratylus. The
Syntax is a new edition, considerably enlarged, of a little work
published three years ago, in Latin, under the title, Constructionis
Graeca Praecepta. Although I have reproduced these rules in En
X
PREFACE.
glish, in order to make the present book uniform, I do not abandon
any of the arguments which induced me originally to write them in
Latin; and I shall probably reprint them in that language, for the use
of those schools in which they are already employed. As the present
work is intended not only for schools, but also for private students,
I have thought it reasonable to enter upon fuller explanations than
were necessary in a mere outline of the subject; and having set
forth the principles of Syntax at sufficient length in the present
book, I shall still farther reduce the Latin Praecepta, if any future
edition is required, by omitting all the connecting remarks, and so
leaving only a frame-work of rules, which may serve as a lesson
book to be committed to memory. The doctrine of metres, which
forms the sixth part of this work, is a developement of the hints
thrown out in certain passages of a book called Varronianus, which
I published in 1844.
But although this work lays claim to originality in regard to
the principles on which it rests, the arrangement of the materials,
and most of the characteristic details, it will be taken for granted,
that I am indebted to some, at least, of the many previous labourers
in the same field. Indeed, in some particulars, such as paradigms of
declension and conjugation, lists of irregular nouns and verbs, &c.,
all grammars must have a good deal in common, and it matters
not from what source we derive the details, in which we must all
agree: so that an outward appearance of uniformity in these mat
ters ought rather to be sought than avoided. The following are all
the grammars which I have consulted during the composition of
my book, or with which I had previously made acquaintance.
(1) A Copious Greek Grammar, by AUGUSTUs MATTHIAE,
translated by E. V. Blomfield”. Fifth Edition. London, 1832.
* This work may be regarded as the first commencement of improved
Greek Grammars in this country.
If the life of the translator had
been spared, we should have been indebted to him also for anticipating
by about twelve years, the Greek and English lexicography which has
lately done so much to facilitate the labours of the young student.
PREFACE.
xi
(2) A Greek Grammar for the Use of Schools, abridged from
the Greek Grammar of A. Matthiae, by C. J. BLoMFIELD, D.D.,
Bishop of London. Seventh Edition. London, 1845.
(3) Ausführliche Griechische Sprachlehre von PHILIPP BUTT
MANN.
(4)
Berlin, 1830.
Second Edition.
Griechische Grammatik von P. BUTTMANN. Berlin, 1833.
Fourteenth Edition.
(5)
Buttmann’s Larger Greek Grammar, translated by E.
RoBINSON. Andover, U. S. 1833.
(6) Méthode pour étudier la Langue Grecque, par J. L. BUR
Nour.
(7)
Paris, 1814.
Second Edition. .
Graeca Grammaticae Rudimenta (auct. C. WoRDsworth)
Oron. 1844.
Fifth Edition.
(8) A Grammar of the Greek Language, chiefly from the
German of R. Kühner, by W. E. JELF. Oxford, 1843—5.
(9) Griechische Grammatik von Dr. MEHLHoRN.
1845. (First Part).
Halle,
(10) Griechische Sprachlehre für Schulen von K.W. KRUGER,
Berlin, 1846.
(11) Syntaac der griechischen Sprache von J. N. MADvig
Braunschweig, 1847.
The proper mode of using this book must depend upon the
number of classes in the schools by which it may be adopted.
After learning the declensions and conjugations, the pupil should
proceed to the Syntax. If he can be made to understand the
difference between a definite and indefinite antecedent, he need fear
no difficulties in Greek construction. The particulars to which his
Some time ago the Bishop of London allowed me to inspect at my lei
sure the MSS. of his brother's adaptation of Schneider, and I can thus
speak, from my own knowledge, of the advantages which would have
been secured to an earlier race of scholars, if Mr. E. W. Blomfield had
been permitted to complete what he had so well begun.
xii
PREFACE.
attention must be especially directed, in the first instance, are the
distinctions between the different kinds of predicates (404); the
tenses (431, sqq.); the cases with and without prepositions (441,
sqq.); the four classes of conditional expressions (502); and the
negative particles (528, sqq.) When sufficiently conversant with
these rules, he ought at once to commence the composition of
short sentences, and the rest of this book will then serve as a
manual of reference for the learner, or, at any rate, will suggest
questions to the teacher.
J. W. D.
King Edward's School, Bury St. Edmund's,
September 15, 1848.
E. R. R. A. T A.
Page 7, line 5, bottom, for “the combination,” read “in this
combination.”
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
81,
171,
172,
173,
—
—
192,
208,
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
11, top, for ", read Î.
1, top, for 486, read 489.
1, top, for 597, read 600.
15, top, for 597, read 600.
19, top, for 596, read 599.
5, bottom, for 494, read 497.
16, top, for 'Eis, read Els.
8, top, for i read ei.
C O N T E N T S.
Articl
INTRODUCTION.
cie
1 THE Greek Language and its Dialects ....................
PART I.
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
16 Alphabet...... ..................................................
17 Pronunciation ...................................................
19 Division of the Letters......................
25 Origin and Arrangement of the Letters ....
is Cºntractions and Abbreviations...................
29 Syllables..........................................................
33 Prosody. a. Quantity.......................................
40
£. Accents.......................................
-
56 Stops................................................... .........
PART II.
ETYMOLOGY.
57 Divisions of the Subject.............................. ........
58 Classification of Words ............................... ......
63 Analysis of Words............................................
78 Pronominal Words and Forms .............................
79 Root-words. ...................................................
80 Pathology A. Affections of Consonants ................
B. Affections of Vowels ......................
122 Contraction .....................................................
130 Crasis.............................................................
135 Svnizesis.........................................................
119
138
141
£j.
Ectasis.................... ......................................
- - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- -
--
PART III.
IN FLEXION.
CHAPTER. I.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
146 General Remarks ..............................................
152 Substantives ....................................................
158 First Declension in -a ........................................
166 Second Declension in -o ............................... ......
172 Third or Consonantal Declension .........................
Page
l
xiv
CONTENTS.
Article
178
179
180
a. Labial Nouns..............................................
b. Guttural Nouns ...........................................
c. Dental Nouns..............................................
183
186
194
195
d. Liquid Nouns..............................................
e. Nouns in F, as represented by -i or -v. .............
f. Derivatives in -ms, -eos ....................................
Adjectives. Of Three Terminations .......................
217
225
226
245
—
Of Two Terminations.........................
Of One Termination ...
Pronouns declined as Nouns.......... .....................
Numerals........................................................
Page
48
49
-
52
53
55
56
65
66
-
73
253 Cardinals and Numeral Signs...............................
75
254
260
77
Ordinal Numbers..............................................
Adverbs........... ....................................... ......
269 Degrees of Comparison ............. ... ......................
284 Undeclined, Irregular, and Defective Nouns ............
78
82
85
CHAPTER II.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.
285
288
292
Differences of Voice...........................................
Differences of Tense or Time.................... ...........
Differences of Mood..........................................
297
Different Classes of Verbs ...................................
304
306
319
330
334
Differences in the Person-endings ..........................
Differences in the Augment and Reduplication..........
Paradigms of Regular Verbs. (A) Verbs in -ui..........
(B, a). Barytone Verbs ......................................
General View of the Cognate Tenses in the Different
Conjugations of Barytone Verbs.......................
340
344
(B, b). Circumflexed Verbs ...............................
Anomalous Verbs........................................ .....
-
346 Anomalies of Signification...........................
355
89
-
92
94
96
98
99
113
122
127
131
---------
-
Anomalies of Form ...........................................
136
356 List of Defective and Irregular Verbs......................
-
PART IV.
DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION.
357 Prefatory Remarks............................................
358
157
Derivation.......................................................
-
359 A. Derivative Nouns.........................................
366 B. Derivative Verbs............................... ..........
160
369 Composition..........................
...
370 Synthetic Compounds .................
377 Parathetic Compounds........................................
. ...
-
162
-
164
CONTENTS.
XV
PART V.
SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION.
CHAPTER I.
ON THE PROPOSITION IN GENERAL, AND ON
THE SUBJECT IN PART CULAR.
Article
379 General Considerations ..................
386 The Article and Relative ....................................
--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Page
165
166
398 Use of the Article Proper.....................................
169
405 The Relative and its Attraction ..............................
171
413 General Cautions Respecting the Relative and its An
tecedent ......................................................
173
CHAPTER II.
ON THE CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION, AND ON
THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF PREDICATES.
414
416
420
429
436
440
General Principles ............................................. 174
Primary Predicates. (a) Nouns ........
Primary Predicates. (b) Participles ....................... 175
Primary Predicates. (c) Tenses of the Finite Verb .... 177
Secondary Predicates. (a) Adverbs ..................... 180
Secondary Predicates. (b) Cases of Nouns .............. 181
441
a. The Nominative.................................
.
. ..
-
-
448 B. The Genitive......... ....
455 y. The Dative................
187
400
189
185
°. The Accusative................................................
489 Contrasted Meanings of the Oblique Cases ............... 190
470 Secondary Predicates. Supplement to the Cases. Pre
positions ....................................................
474
476
477
478
481
a.
fl.
Y.
3.
e.
-
Prepositions with the Genitive............................. 191
Prepositions with the Dative............................... 192
Preposition with the Accusative .........................
Prepositions with the Genitive and Accusative....... —
Preposition with the Dative and Accusative ......... 194
-
482 & Prepositions with three Cases...............
.....
488 Quasi Prepositions....................
489 Tertiary Predicates...............................................
• - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - --
195
199
200
CHAPTER III.
ON THE HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION, AND ON
THE MOODS, AND NEGATIVE PARTICLES.
499 General Principles..............................................
500 Conditional Propositions ......
* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * *
203
-
xvi
CONTENTS.
Article
Page
509 General Rules respecting the Use of the Moods in
Conditional Propositions..................................
2O6
513 The Subjunctive and Optative in Conditional Propo
Sitions . . . . . . . . . . .......................................... . . .
-
519 The Imperative in Conditional Propositions................
209
526 The Infinitive as a Substitute for the Imperative ........ 211
528
529
Negative Particles.................................................
Mn in the Protasis....... ............................
...
530 Ov in the Categorical Proposition or Apodosis......
212
213
-
531 Oi and ui after Relatives and Relative Particles.........
214
534 OV, when it negatives the primary notion of a word or
phrase.........................
535 Os and um in Interrogations.......
538 Mii after Verbs of fearing, &c...
540 Construction of oil uſ ...................
--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
215
...
—
...
216
217
- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -
CHAPTER IV.
ON CO-ORDINATE AND SUBORDINATE SENTENCES.
546 Recapitulation and Definitions ........................... ....
549 Copulative and Disjunctive Sentences ......
...
559
Distributive Sentences ..............
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
573 Temporal Sentences...........................................
584 Objective Sentences...................
220
221
224
Illative or Consecutive Sentences ...
...
Final Sentences ..................
...
Causal Sentences .................................................
Concessive Sentences...........................
...
227
232
235
238
241
243
624 Conclusion. Irregularities of Construction................
244
-----------
595
605
615
621
- - - - - --
w
631
PART VI.
METRE.
Definitions.......................................................
639 Equal Rhythms. A. Dactylic Verse ....
647 —— B. Anapaestic Verse......
651 Double Rhythms. A. Trochaic Verse....
656
661
...
— B. Iambic Verse ...................
Hemiolian Rhythms..................
-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
663 Asynartete and Antispastic Verses ..
666 a. Asynartetes......................
672 b. Antispasts.................
.....
- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - -
-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
APPENDIX A...................................................
— B....................................................
247
250
253
256
258
261
263
-
266
269
270
INTRODUCTION.
THE GREEK LANGUAGE AND ITS
DIALECTS.
Art. 1 THE GREEK LANGUAGE (pavn (EAAmvikſ) is that
which was anciently spoken throughout the whole extent
of Greece or Hellas (EAAds), a term which included all the
Greek colonies (Herod. II, 182). But there were two
countries to which this name was applied,—that which
still bears the name, and which was distinguished as i
apyaſa ‘EAAds (Plut. Timol. c. 37), or Gracia Antiqua;
and the south-east of Italy with Sicily, which was called
ripeydan'EAAds (Strabo, p. 253) or Graecia Magna.
2
It was in the former of these, or Greece Proper, as
it is sometimes designated, that this language was formed
by a fusion of different tribes; and though the colonists in
Asia Minor and Magna Graecia contributed largely to the
developement of Greek literature, the intellectual energies
of the people, and consequently the living excellence of the
language, were always most conspicuous in the mother
country; and, in the end, all the scattered Greeks had
learned to speak the language of Attica.
3 The ancient Greek language is a member of the
great Indo-Germanic family, and is therefore intimately
connected with the old languages of the Indians, Persians,
Celts, Sclavonians, Germans, and Italians. It belongs to
the science of Comparative Philology to point out the nature
and extent of this connexion.
4 Confining our attention to the Greek language, we
find that this language, as we have it, consists of two ele
ments—the Pelasgian and the Hellenic; and Herodotus has
informed us, that the Hellenes or Greeks owed their great
ness to a coalition with the Pelasgians (I, 58. Varronianus,
p. 14). The Pelasgians (IIex-agºyoſ, or IIéAores, “swarthy
Asiatics,” or “dark-faced men.” Varron. p. 24. Kenrick
Phil. Mus. II, 353) were the original occupants
civi
*
I). G. G.
2
INTRODUCTION.
lizers of the Peloponnese, which was called after their name,
and also of many districts in northern Greece. These were
afterwards incorporated with the Hellenes ("EAAnves, “the
warriors:” comp. the name of their god'AréAAww, Müller,
Dor. II, 6, § 6), a cognate martial tribe from the mountains
in the north of Thessaly. In proportion as the Hellenic
or Pelasgian element in this admixture predominated in
particular districts, the tribes were called Dorians (Awpleſs,
“Highlanders,” from ēa and 6pos, Kenrick, Herod. p. LXI.),
or Ionians ("Iwwes, “men of the coast,” 'Hiovia; also Aiya
Aéïs, “Beach-men,” or 'Axaloſ, “sea-men:" Kenrick, Phil.
Mus. II, p. 367). And these appear in historical times
r the two grand subdivisions of the Hellenic race (Herod.
, 56).
5 When, however, the Dorians or “Highlanders” first
descended from their mountains in the north of Thessaly,
and incorporated themselves with the Pelasgians of the
Thessalian plains, they were called Æolians (Aloxeſs, “mixed
men”), and this name was retained by the Thessalians and
Boeotians long after the opposition of Dorian and Ionian
had established itself in other parts of Greece. The legend
states this fact very distinctly, when it tells us that “Hellen
left his kingdom to AEolus, his eldest son, while he sent
forth Dorus, and Xuthus, the father of Ion, to make con
quests in distant lands,” (Apollod. I, 7, 3, 1. Thirlwall,
1, p. 101).
6
Hence we find that of the Greek colonies settled on
the western coast of Asia Minor, the earliest and most
northerly, which started from Boeotia, called themselves
AEolians; that those who subsequently proceeded from
Attica, and occupied the central district, called themselves
Ionians; while those who finally sailed from Argos, and
took possession of the southern coast, bore the name of Do
7°00708.
7 The cultivation of Lyric poetry by the AEolians of
Lesbos, the choral poetry of the Dorians, and the epic poetry
* The proper meaning of AióAos is “particoloured,” and it is used
especially to designate alternations of black and white in stripes: thus,
the cat is called alkoupos (alóNovpos) from the stripes on its tail: and
for the same reason alóAos is a constant epithet of the serpent. It is
the opposite of darkows: so Athen. XIV, 622, c. dºr M ovu fiv6 udv
Xéovres at 6Aq MéAet. We do not agree therefore with Dr. Thirlwall,
(I, p. 102) that AlóAos is a by-form of "EAAmv.
3
INTRODUCTION.
of the Ionians, gave an early and definite expression to
certain provincial varieties which were called Dialects (?id
Aekrol), and the energetic and intelligent branch of the
Ionian race which occupied Attica (Arrikº or ’Akriki, “the
Promontory-Land"), subsequently gave such a distinctive
character to their own idiom, that the Attic (ri’Arðſs) was
considered a fourth Dialect by the side of the Doric (i
Awpts), the Æolic (i Atoxis), and the Ionic (ri'Ids).
8 As every dialect or provincial variety is such with
reference to some standard of comparison, and as the Attic
in the end became the general language, or “common Dia
lect” (kown Čudaekros) of all the Greeks, Grammarians have
always estimated the AEolic, Doric, and Ionic dialects by
their deviations from the Attic standard.
9
Considered, however, in themselves, the four Dia
lects may be divided into two groups, corresponding to the
two main divisions of the Hellenic nation (art. 4). For
there is much truth in Strabo's remark (p. 333), that the
ancient Attic was identical with the Ionic, and the AEolic
with the Doric.
10 The Doric and Æolic Dialects agreed in represent
ing the Pelasgo-Hellenic language in its first rude state
of juxta-position. And if, on the one hand, the Hellenic
element was more strongly pronounced in its roughness
and broadness of utterance, on the other hand, the pecu
liarities of the Pelasgian, which were lost in the further
developement of Hellenism, were still preserved in the
AEolic, and to a certain extent in the Doric also.
11 Although the Ionians, as such, contained the Pe
lasgian element in greater proportion than the AEolo-Doric
tribes, their language gives less evidence of the lost Pelas
gian idiom than those of the more northern tribes. The
reason of this is plain. In their case there was no longer
juxta-position, but fusion; and the irreconcileable pecu
liarities of the Pelasgian and Hellenic idioms had been
mutually resigned. The Ionians, whose ear did not repu
diate a concurrence of vowels, omitted the harsh consonants
of the Pelasgian idiom, and the Athenians carried this a
step further, by contracting into one the syllables which
produced an hiatus.
12 The Attic Greek is the richest and most perfect
language in the world. It is the only language which has
1–2
4
INTRODUCTION.
attained to a clear and copious syntax, without sacrificing
its inflexions and power of composition. It is the language
of Sophocles, Aristophanes, and Plato. It had become the
language of Herodotus; and even Homer's Poems, as they
have descended to us, are to a large extent Atticized. It
is this language which, following the example of previous
grammarians, we propose to teach in the following pages.
13 Those who learned Attic Greek as a foreign or
obsolete idiom, were said to Atticize (dirtikíčew), and there
is a large class of later writers who are called Atticists
(Atrikigºraſ). But those foreigners who spoke Greek from
the ear, and without any careful observation of the rules
of the Attic idiom, and who consequently mixed up with
their Greek many words and dictions which were of foreign
origin, were said to Hellenize (£AAnvíčew), and there is a
large class of writers, including the authors of the New
Testament, to whom we give the name of Hellenists (EA
Anvirtaſ). It is the object of the Greek scholar's studies to
make him not a Hellenist, but an Atticist, in the highest
sense of the word.
14 A critical and comprehensive Greek Grammar
should contain all the information which is needed by a
modern student of the ancient Greek writers, and while it
should aim at teaching the art of writing Attic Greek both
in verse and prose, it should develope those etymological
principles which have been derived from comparative phi
lology, or the philosophical examination of all languages
of the same family, and by the aid of which the dialectical
and other changes in the language of ancient Greece are
easily and safely explicable.
15 Such a Grammar should consist of the following
different parts:—
i. Orthography and Orthoëpy, which give the rules
for the accurate writing, punctuation, accentuation, and
pronunciation of ancient Greek.
ii. Etymology, which explains the analysis of indi
vidual words, divides them into different classes according
to this analysis, and points out the affections or anomalous
structures which result from the contact of consonants or
vowels with one another.
iii. Inflexion, which applies the rules of etymology to
the motion of nouns through their cases, numbers, and
INTRODUCTION.
5
genders, and of verbs through their persons, numbers, tenses,
and voices.
iv. Composition and Derivation, which show how two
or more forms may be united in the same word, and how
one form may be deduced from another.
v. Syntax or Construction, which examines logically
the conjunction of words in a sentence, and the mutual
dependence of sentences.
vi. Metre, which points out the connexion between
the quantity of syllables and their rhythmical arrangement
in verse composition.
These six parts fall into two main departments—the
first four referring to the Word itself, and the last two to
the logical and rhythmical arrangement of words in sen
tences and verses.
PART I.
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
§ I. Alphabet.
16 THE ordinary Greek Alphabet consists of the fol
lowing twenty-four letters (groixeſa):
Capitals. Small
Letters.
English
Names.
Pronunciation.
8.
Alpha
"AApa
Beta
Bºra
b
g(hard) Gamma
Taupo
g
d
AéAta
d
Latin
Transcription.
A
a
B
T
3&
yſ
A
E
3
e
ë (short) E-psilon "Ev'rixóv
Z
čğ
Z
b
Delta
Zeta
H
n
ë (long) Eta
6
09
I
K
A
k
A
th
i
k
l
Zºra
"Hra
Theta
63riºra
Iöta
'Iora
0.
e
2, ss, di, j
6
th
i
Kappa Karºra
Lambda Adu/33a
c, g, k
l
Mu
Nu
Xi
M5
N5
772.
Ef
a;
M. p.
In
N
v
In
3
:
X
O
II
o
ºr ar
ū (short) O-micron "O ukpóv 0
P.
p6
r
p
Pi
Rho
II?
"Pó
%
p
r and rh
or
>
#}
or, when at
of
-
z
Sigma
2íyua
3.
Tao
t
ç
T
+7
t
Tau
Y
v
U1
q
q.
ph
U-psilon "Y Vºixów y
Phi
Q?
ph
X
X
ch(hard) Chi
Y
\!,
ps
Q
wo
Ö(long) O-méga 'Quéya
Psi
X?
*I'ſ
ch
ps
o
§ II. Pronunciation.
17 We have given the usual pronunciation of these
letters as they are articulated in England. At the revival
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
7
of letters there was a considerable controversy on this
subject, especially between the followers of Reuchlin, who
was guided by the pronunciation of the modern Greeks,
and those of Erasmus, whose method rests upon internal
evidence, and is also supported by the Latin transcription.
Few modern scholars will doubt that the latter is the more
reasonable procedure. According to this method, 6, 7, 8,
6, K, A, u, v, o, ºr, or, T, X, W, to were pronounced as they
still are in England: a was the English a in father, or mat,
according as it is long or short; e was the short e in met,
n the long a in mate, or the long e in there; was the i in
machine, or pin, according as it is long or short; and v was
pronounced softly, like our u in cube or Cupid. It will be
observed that e and v are called Nziądv, i.e. “unaspirated.”
The reason of this is that e, as we shall soon have occasion
to observe, was originally the mark of aspiration: and v
never occurs at the beginning of a word without a rough
breathing. Similarly, p is always hr or rh. Philology has
taught us that the compound letters, Č, Š, and ºp had
other sounds than those which Erasmus attributed to
them.
At one time, the Greeks had a Xav as well as a
Zñra, just as the Hebrews have Zain by the side of Tsade:
the former was a hard dental sibilant, and the latter appears
to have corresponded very nearly to the soft French j.
Although the letter Xav fell out of use, it appears that one
of the values of Znra represented its pronunciation oré, and
that the other value of Znra was a substitute for the com
bination of y(k) or 3 (r) with . Similarly, there were
two articulations of Ei : the hard sound ks or Xs, and the
softer sound sh, resulting from the transposition of Xs into
ox, and corresponding to the articulation of its parent the
Hebrew Shin. With regard to pi it is doubtful whether it
ever had the pronunciation f, and whether it was not
always pronounced like p-h in hap-hazard.
18 Some of these letters would change their sound
when doubled, or in contact with others.
a. Y followed by another y, or by k, x, 5, represents
an original v, and the combination is pronounced ng : com
pare dyyexos with angelus.
b. C is often written for y, 81, the pronunciation of
which it represents: also for oré.
c. t before
approximates to o, and sometimes is
8
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
changed into that sibilant: compare flavariuos and TAovolos
with 6avaros and traoûros.
d. 9 when followed by a vowel, if not combined with
it, may be pronounced like our w.
e. e before o, ø, is often pronounced like our y.
f. 3, 0°, p seem to have approximated in pronuncia
tion to one another, and to the sibilant or, for which they
are often substituted in writing: but although ri may be
changed into ori, o is not changed into t except in the
diplasiasmus org, which is written rr in later Attic. The
interchange of or and 0 is most common in the combi
nation or = 0s, e.g. orids = 6eos; and 6 becomes 3 most
frequently in the combination 6 = 8. It is to be remarked
that not only do -6 as = -óias become -0ns, -ēns, but the
dentals are occasionally omitted.
g. p and A sometimes meet in a mixed pronunciation,
and are accordingly interchanged.
h. As the Greeks could not pronounce 30-, 30-, or
00-, and were particularly attached to the combination a 6-,
we often find this as a substitute for the other combinations
of dental sibilants.
j. Some of these and many other changes of pronuncia
tion may be traced to the double value of F, the cau or
Digamma, which was originally the sixth letter of the
alphabet, and was a compound of the two consonants,
one of which represented the guttural, the other the labial
in its ultimate state. These two consonants are s (some
times reduced to h) and c : and from their combination,
and the different changes which they separately and toge
ther admit of, arises that great variety of letters which are
traced to an original identity. In most cases, this so or
ho represents kp; when a dental appears, it has arisen by a
fault of articulation from the sibilant (above f). The fol
lowing is the regular series of transitions: the guttural may
pass through k, q, 9, j, 8, h to our i or y : the labial through
* In Joannis Cheradami Introductio Alphabetica same quam utilis
Graecarum Musarum adyta compendio ingredi cupientibus, Dionysiae,
1535, the following definition is given of the pronunciation of 3 and 6:
“Delta non prorsus ut Latinis D, sed producta sensin per dentes linguà
aliquanto minus quam. Thita aspere pronuntiatur. Thita prolata per
dentes lingua aliterae quidem r prolatione incipit, sed vehementius quam
Delta in anserinum sibilum exspiratur.” On the change of R and D in
Latin, see Varronianus, pp. 51,207.
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
9
p, b, m, ph, v, to u. And either element may be dropt.
See below 74, 107, 117, and elsewhere.
§ III. Division of the Letters.
19 The consonants (consonantes litterae, otoixeſa oriu
ºptova) are divided
a. According to the organ with which they are pro
nounced, into
Labials, or lip-letters.............£8, r, p, u
Dentals, or teeth-letters......... 8, t, 6, v, A, p
Gutturals, or throat-letters......y, k, x
and
Sibilants, or hissing letters......o, Č, Š, Nº.
b. according to their power, or capacity for independ
ent articulation into
i. Semi-vowels (riuſquova), which form a syllable, whe
ther the vowel precedes or follows, and these are
a. Liquids
A, 11, v, p
A. Sibilants
o, (, ś, Jr.
ii. Mutes (āqova), which do not properly form a syl
lable unless a vowel follows them, and these are distin
guished according to the breathing with which they are
uttered as
a. Rough, aspiratae, Saoréa, p, X, 6) 3.
3. Smooth, tenues, Jr.Adi,21ſ, R, ºr /.
y. Middle, media, pºéora,
20. Vowels (vocales littera, groixeia
divided into two classes.
a. Those which are the residuary forms of breathings,
and these are
a from the lightest,
e
from the heaviest,
o from the middle breathing.
We say, conversely, that a is the heaviest, e the lightest,
and o the middle vowel in point of weight. The meaning
of this is, that in words from the same root a appears in
the lightest, e in the heaviest forms, and o in the forms of
intermediate weight. Thus the root rap-appears unaffected
in the 2 aor. e-tap-ov, but assumes the form o and e in the
10
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
successively heavier words réuo-s, réu-v-w. This is par
ticularly the case in the perfects of verbs, when the weight
of a consonant is taken off from the vowel by the attrac
tion of the consonant into the following syllable. Thus, in
otpéqui and réutu, the first syllable is necessarily a Tpeºp-,
Teutr-, but in the perfects -atpo-pa, ºrérou-pa, the p is
drawn off to represent the lost guttural of the affix. (Be
low 291, 300.) A comparison of such words as Adyos,
Aéyw, orpoºn, orpépw, will shew us that the verb has
lost a strengthening affix, probably ia, which contributed
to throw back the last consonant of the root on the pre
ceding vowel.
b. Those which are the residuary forms of mutes:
• from the dentals and gutturals,
v from the labials (above 18 j.)
21 Vowels of the former class, when prefixed to vowels
of the second class, may be pronounced in one breath, and
are then called Diphthongs (3ſq607)a), or double sounds.
The diphthongs with their English pronunciation, and
Latin transcription, are as follows:
English Pronunciation.
Cºt
et
ot
Latin Transcription.
ai in aisle
00
ei in height
oi in noisy
O6
3 or e
Cruz
au in cause
020
ev
eu in eulogy
e?&
ou
ow in thou
i.
22 The long vowels n and w are supposed to represent
ee and oo, and generally involve an aspirate, or resolved
guttural, or labial. In fact, n is considered etymologically
equivalent to taº, of which ee is a fainter articulation, and
* It has been mentioned above that m is equivalent to our long a
Anglo-Saxon ii., The passage from wa to this sound may be seen in a
comparison of the German ja with our yea. That it had this sound
is proved by the definition: Öel rô m pièv čkqwwouvra umküveuv rô
orröua is étri Ta dra ékatépw0sv, rô 38 tº Škºpovouvra umküvew Tä
et\m as étri riiv giva kai tow trajywva (Bekkeri Anecd. p. 797), and by
the passages from Cratinus (Etym. M. 196, 7):
& 3' j\{0ios wortrep trpáBarov 37 37 Aéywv Bačíget:
and Aristophanes (Bekkeri Anecd. p. 86):
6áew ue ué\\et kai kexeijet 37 Aéyeuv.
Cf. Hesych. s. v. Bij Aéyet. BAmxāral i 66eral (Meineke, Fragm. Com.
Ant. p. 40.)
º
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
11
to ei or i as the contraction of ee. In Doric n is represented
by a, and in Boeotic by et; and although e is lighter than
o, n is heavier than w on account of the guttural thus
represented by ; thus, from Tarmp we have atráTwp, from
ppriv, orºgºpov; and we have the heavier words, 'Iraxtºrms,
orrparturns by the side of troAirfrns. When these long
vowels are prefixed to v, it can hardly be said that the
result is a diphthong: on the contrary there is reason to
believe that in nu, wu, the v was not sounded (Varronianus,
p. 219). Thus aov is contracted into w, and not into ww.
At any rate, when a, n, w are prefixed to , the latter is so
completely absorbed that it is not generally written in the
same line, but becomes what is called Iota subscriptum,
or “Iota underwritten:” thus, g, n, ºp. This iota, how
ever, is placed on the same line when it follows a capital:
thus, "AIAHX = Atóns = ºns.
23 Some grammarians give the name of diphthong
t
to the combination vi ; but whenever this combination is a
monosyllable, it is clear that it becomes so by the resump
tion of a consonantal value on the part of the v, i.e. v is
pronounced like our w. How the Romans pronounced
their quadrisyllable Ilithyia, from Eixeſºvia, we do not
know: but the analogy of fio and fui would lead to the
conclusion that yi became in effect a long i. In general, it
is not easy to recover the true pronunciation of the diph
thongs, whether proper or improper. It is probable, that
et and ev were articulated nearly as in English, but that
av, oi, ov were sounded like the German au, 6, ou, or the
English ow, e, 00 in how, mere, choose. A dog in Aristo
phanes (Vesp. 903) barks ač, a 5: the bird's note på or pºwee,
as in pewit, is written troſ (Aves, 227); and our natural
exclamation ugh is expressed by the common interjection
tou.
24 On the employment of a and e to represent vowels,
the breathings were expressed by the first or second half
of H written over the vowel affected by it: this notation
has been revived by the Oxford press; but generally the
smooth breathing (spiritus lenis, tvejua Nrixóv) is marked *;
and the rough breathing, (spiritus asper, rvetua Čaoiſ) is
marked.". If the word commences with a diphthong, the
breathing is placed over the second vowel; not so when
the second vowel is Iota subscriptum, or absorbed: com
12
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
pare ëyuſ, oios with "Aléns and #30. When a word or syl
lable begins with p the rough breathing is always placed
over that letter: when p is doubled, the first p takes the
smooth breathing according to a general principle, which
will be explained in its proper place (97): compare firitwp,
rhetor with IIºjos, Pyrrhus.
§ IV.
Origin and Arrangement of the Letters.
25 Mythology attributes to the Phoenician hero, Cad
mus, the introduction into Greece of an original alphabet
of sixteen letters; and the old grammarians have supposed
that these sixteen were the following:— a, {3, Y, 3, e, , k,
A, u, v, o, ºr, p, q, r, w (Schol. Dion. Thr. p. 781). There
can be little doubt that the Greek alphabet is of Semitic
origin, and there is every reason to believe that it originally
consisted of four quaternions of letters: but it is a sound
theory, which has been confirmed by the independent in
vestigations of at least four or five different scholars, that
for t, k, p, and v in the above list we must substitute n, 6,
and the two obsolete characters' F (3a) and Q (kátºra),
which are still retained as numerical signs after e and ir
respectively, and that the original arrangement of these
sixteen letters was as follows:
A. BITA. E. F.H6. AMN. X. O. IIQT.
This order is artificial and systematic, as we shall see, if
we consider the original value of these characters. For A,
E, and O, were originally the representatives of breathings
of which A was the lightest, E the heaviest, and O of
intermediate weight: F was an aspirated labial, H an
aspirated guttural, and 6 an aspirated dental : so that the
nine mutes stood thus, each set being preceded by its
appropriate breathing or vowel:—
Breathings,
afterwards
vowels.
E
O
Labials.
B
F
II
Gutturals.
T
H
Q
Dentals.
A
6
T
Mediae
Aspiratae
Tenues
* They are still found in inscriptions, the 8a0 before both consonants
and vowels (Böckh. C. I. No. 11), the kórra only before o (id. ibid.
No. 29, 37,166.)
-
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
13
and the liquids A, M, N, X stood between the aspiratae
and the tenues, because they probably completed a still
shorter Semitic alphabet of only twelve characters.
26 When Ffell out, and H, the double aspirate, was
taken to represent the double e, the first letters added
to the above were v and p, two representatives of F, and x,
the substitute for H in its original use. The other ad
ditional letters were borrowed, as their names denote, from
corresponding letters in the Hebrew alphabet, and from
this was also taken the obsolete Xav, of which we have
spoken above. The Greeks added, for their own convenience,
a double o (called tº uéya, and written w), and two combina
tions of Xſyua or Xav with II, in one of which the r pre
ceded, while in the other it followed the sibilant. These
combinations were called Yi and Xapart, and were repre
sented by the same sign in different postures. YT preceded
and Xapart followed "Q.
Under the form TN, the Xapart
was used to represent the number 900.
27 The Ionians in Asia Minor were the first to adopt
the complete alphabet of twenty-four letters, arranged as
we now have it. The Samians have the credit of being the
earliest employers of this extension of the written charac
ters, and it was from them that the Athenians derived
the additional letters, although they were not used in
public monuments until the Archonship of Euclides, Ol.
94, 2. B. c. 403.
Hence we read of td. Ypdupara ºrd dir'
Of course Herodotus, who was an
important contributor to the literary intercourse between
Samos and Athens, had brought the improved alphabet
into use among men of education at a much earlier period,
and Euripides expressly distinguishes between n and e as
vowels in spelling the name engews (apud Athen. p. 454 c.).
28. The earliest extant approximation to anything like
a handwriting is the inscription on the prize vase brought
from Athens by Mr. Burgon, which cannot be later than
600 B.C. The only abbreviation observable in this is the
Eikaeftov &pxovros.
omission of e in the termination -6ev.
The later Greeks
used a number of contractions in their MSS., the commonest
of which are given in the accompanying table.
14
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
CONTRACTIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS.
M é ºw
TOt
Tat
>:i
pov
Tris
Tov
os
Tou
ou
Tou
º
ouk
7p
r
::
Trapa
Tp
Tep
Tøv
Trept
Tov
Tp
ut
Tpo
uly
y
'677
e Trt
pi
wrep
ep
eu
orðat
ort
:
\
or 7t
w
Kott
org"
w
ko. Tot
or T
:
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
15
§ W. Syllables.
29 A syllable (orvXAaſri) is simple when it consists of
a single vowel with or without a breathing. It is com
pound when it consists of a vowel or diphthong with one
or more consonants. A word (Aéis) consists of one or
more syllables. No syllable or monosyllabic word contains
more than six or seven consonants, as in aTpayå.
30 In regard to words of more than one syllable, the
following rules apply to the division of the syllables:
a. A solitary consonant, whether single or double, be
tween two vowels, properly belongs to the second of them :
as in e-xet, cº-pia, i-ka-vév, Ü-Nºn-Aos.
£3. Two consonants are divided between the syllables
which precede and follow, except in the case of a tenuis or
aspirated mute followed by any liquid, or a medial mute
followed by p, when, as the articulation is not divided, the
compound sound passes on to the following vowel; thus we
divide words as follows: d-trply-86-tank-ta, ś-pag-Xa-Ata
ôn, Ba-pu-3p3-pos, #3-Aa-Nze. For the application of this
rule to the quantity of syllables, see below 36, 37.
7. The first of three consonants belongs to the syllable
which precedes; thus we divide as follows: éo-0A0s, éx
(pós, òu-rvri, pudk-tpa, &c.
31 Etymology sometimes interferes with this rule
respecting the division of syllables. In regard to the roots
of verbs, the vocalization will often show that one or more
consonants have been thrown back upon the root syllable.
Thus a comparison of otpépw and réutro with their per
fects &ortpopa, Tétropºpa, will show us that the first syllable
of the present must be atpeºp-, repºr-, and the second syl
lable of the perfect orpo-, trou- (above 20). For the same
reason, compound words are divided according to their con
stituent parts: as in kvvás-oupé, ék-tíðmu.
32 By a special rule the converse is made to apply to
compounds with eis, é, trpás, 8vo-, which carry on their
final sibilant to the next syllable when it begins with a
vowel: thus they divided €-āyew, §v-ordpertos (Bekker.
Anecd. p. 1128). But the correctness of this rule may be
doubted.
16
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
§. VI.
Prosody, or the Quantity and Accentuation
of Syllables.
a. Quantity.
33 Prosody (ºrpor:pāta), teaches, besides the breath
ings (above 24), the quantity of syllables, or the time (Xpd
vos) occupied in their utterance, and the accentuation of
syllables, or the tone (róvos) with which they are pro
nounced.
34 The shortest time in which a syllable can be pro
nounced is called a mora, or single time. A short syllable
has one mora: a long syllable contains two mora.
35 The quantity of syllables is determined either by
the nature of the vowel, or by that of the consonants which
follow : in the former case the quantity is said to depend on
the nature of the vowel; in the latter, on the position of
the consonants.
36 A Syllable is long by nature, when it contains a
long vowel or diphthong; by position, when it is followed
by a composite consonant—K, #, or Nº-or by two or more
in which the articulation is divided (above,
º
30 (3)
37 A Syllable is short when it contains a short vowel,
and is followed by a single consonant, or by two consonants,
in which the articulation is not divided (above, 30 (8.)
Practically we find that while a short vowel is almost
always short before
Tp, *p, Tp : pp, Xp, 9p : 8p, Yp, 3p,
generally short before
TA, KA, TA: pā, XA, 8A: rv, kv ; Xv, 0w: Tu :
rarely, if ever, short before
(3A, YA; ºu, uv;
all of which may begin a word; a short vowel may retain
its quantity in the same word before ku, Xu, 6a, tv, pv,
which cannot begin a word. This is simply the result of
more or less facility of articulation.
38 . The natural quantity of the vowels e, o, is distin
-
-
-
guished by a difference of characters: for e, o, are always
, short; m, w, always long by nature.
39 The quantity of a, , v is determined by etymology,
and learned by experience. When they involve an absorption
or contraction, they are necessarily long; when they repre
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
17
sent a mere residuum of articulation, they are necessarily
short. In the dialects a frequently stands for an original
n: in this case it is necessarily long. But in process of
time, usage introduced pronunciations which violate these
rules: thus kaAds, from kač-Ads, ought to be long by nature;
but it is invariably short in Attic Greek: the comparative
ending in -itov ought to be long by nature; but it is invari
ably short in Epic poetry.
£3.
Accents.
40 The accent is the sharp or elevated sound with
which some one of the last three syllables of a Greek word
is regularly pronounced, and is called accordingly the
“acute accent,” accentus acutus, dºeſa ºrporpèta, döös révos.
It is indicated by a line sloping to the right over the vowel,
or second vowel of the diphthong, by which the accentu
ated syllable is articulated.
41 Every other syllable is supposed to have the “grave
accent” (3apeſa Tporpéta), which, when expressed, is
marked by a line sloping to the left.
42 The acute accent may stand on the ultima, penul
tima, or antepenultima of a word.
43 Words are called oayton when the acute is on the
ultima, as kpitifs; paroa/ton, when on the penultima, as
Aóyos; and proparoayton, when on the antepenultima, as
-
Tvrtopuevos.
44 Paroxyton and proparoayton words are called
barytons.
45 When an oayton word occurs in the middle of a
sentence, its last syllable becomes baryton, and the accent
is sloped to the left; thus we write: ei ºn pºntpvin rept
Kaxxis Hepigota. These words are said to be “inclined”
(3/k\ivöueva, Anecd. Bekker. 1142), and must be carefully
distinguished from the enclitics (éykAttika), of which we
shall speak directly.
46. The only other case, in which the grave accent is
expressed, is when it is combined with the acute in a con
tracted syllable, made up of two vowel-syllables, the former
of which has the acute accent. Thus, if pixáo is contracted
into pixò, or pºojaa into pixotoa, the grave of the second,
as well as the acute of the first vowel, is expressed in the
circumflex which is placed over the contracted syllable.
D. G. G.
18
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
This combined accent is written" or", and when the ori
ginal form was paroayton, the resulting word is called peri
spomenon(trepigrºuevov); when proparoxyton, the new word
is called properispomenon ("potrepio trajuevov).
47 In proparowytona, and therefore in properispomena,
the last syllable is always short: and if the last syllable is
short, and the penultima, being long by nature, is also
accentuated, the word must be properispomenon.
48
In reference to accentuation, at and ot are con
sidered short, except in cases where etymology teaches that
there was an original longer form, as in the infin. -éval for
-éueva!, and the optat. -at for -ele.
49 When the last syllable is long by position only, and
the penultima long by nature, it is held that the word may
be properispomenon, although, under the same circum
stances, it could not be proparoa'yton ; thus, we might write
Amuſovač, but not 'It triavač.
50 The accentuation depends upon the etymology or
form of the word. For example, the sharp sound produced
by a consonantal affix is naturally marked by the acute
accent.
Thus, the accentuation discriminates the root in
8tk-n and 70-km.
51 The following are the chief rules for practice in
the accentuation of inflexions.
a. l In Nouns, the accent of the oblique cases is
always on the same syllable as in the nominative, unless
some one of the general rules prohibits this. Thus we have
orðua, adjuatos, but rougtov; divöpwros, dvěpatrol, but
dvdpuitov, dvdpºrov ; éAtris, éAríčos, éArſèes, éAríðwv; and
so forth.
a. 2 In the first declension the gen, plural is always
perispomenon, because -ów is here a contraction from dov.
a. 3 For the same reason, the gen. and dat. of all
numbers are perispomena in the first and second declen
sions, when the nom. is oayton ; for dp0ns, opóð, are con
tractions from dp06-yds, dp06-l.
a. 4 In the third declension, monosyllabic nouns are
oxyton in the gen, and dat, sing, and in the dat. plural,
and perispomena in the gen, and dat, dual, and in the gen.
plural: the other cases retain the accent on the root-syllable:
thus we have xeip, xepās, xept, xépa, xeſpa, Yepov, xeport.
19
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
The same rule often applies to polysyllables in -mp, -épos,
when they drop the e.
a. 5 If the noun be oxyton and of more than one
syllable, the accent will fall on the penultima in the oblique
cases, which will be paroayton or properispomenon, accord
ing to the natural quantity of the penultima. If the noun
be not owyton, the gen. dual and plural will be paroa.gton, the
other oblique cases proparoa.gton.
Observ. The student will do well to bear in mind that
a contraction of the termination does not affect the accent
of the previous syllable: thus we have reixos, retxeos,
reixovs: épi\ee, éptAet.
52 . (3.1 The general rule for the accentuation of
Verbs is the following: the accent falls as nearly as may
be on the root-syllable.
£3. 2. Accordingly, if the form has more than two
syllables, and if the ultima is short, the verb will be pro
paroayton; if the ultima is long, paroayton; if there is a
contraction in the former case, properispomenon ; if in the
latter, perispomenon.
The special rules, which seem like exceptions to this
general rule, are the results of absorptions, which etymology
explains. They are as follows:
a. The aor. infin. in -éabat, the perf. infin. in -éval, the
aor. infin. in -oral, and the perf. infin, pass. in -0at (when in
the two latter cases the penultima is not long by nature)
are always paroayton.
b. The aor. infin. in -eſv, and the aor. subj. pass. in
-6, -às, -n, are always perispomena.
c. The aor. and perf infinitives excepted in (a), and the
aor. subj. pass. in -øuev, -nte, -tool, are always properis
€720.
Thus the student will distinguish between trouía at 3
sing. l aor, opt. act. (above, 48), tonga, l aor. infin, act.(c),
and troing at 2 sing. 1 aor. imper. middle (general rule).
The participles follow the rules of nouns in regard to
their oblique cases: the active participles of verbs in -ui,
the aorists in -ºv, -ets, and the perfects in -as, being always
oayton in the nominative, and the perfect passive in -uévos
being always parodyton.
53 It has been remarked above, that all oaytons are
barytoned, when they appear in connexion with other
2—2
20
ORTHOGRAPHY
AND
ORTHOEPY.
words in the middle of a sentence. Besides this connexion
between the accentuation of words and the cadence of the
sentence in which they appear, there are other peculiarities
of accentuation which are explicable from the same prin
ciples. We refer to the doctrine of proclitics and enclitics.
These are certain little words, which so entirely take their
colour from the sentence in which they appear, that they
are not conceived capable of any separate existence. They
are called proclitics, when they stand before, and enclitics,
when they follow, the word on which they depend, and to
which they are, as it were, attached.
54
The Proclitics are the cases of the article which
terminate in a vowel: 6, 7, oi, ai, and the particles év,
els (és), Čk (&), ou (ovk), wis. These little words are sup
posed to form a part of the words which follow them: just
as if we wrote dratrip, oùxnuſy, for 6 trarip, oux juïv. Pro
clitics receive an accent when they become emphatic by
post-position or otherwise: as kaków &#, or ot, Aéyw, tº
dvěpes'Abnvaſol, où.
Although the other prepositions may seem to stand in
the same combination, as eis, év, and éð, with the cases of
their nouns, their consonantal commencement, or heavier
forms, exhibit them as orytons.
55
The Enclitics are:
a. The pr. indic. of elui and pnuſ, except the 2 sing.
el and pris.
b. The oblique cases sing. of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd
personal pronouns, and the oblique cases dual, with some
of the plural cases, of the third personal pronoun.
c. All cases of the indefinite tis, the interrogative be
ing always accentuated with the acute, as though it were
an initial syllable.
d. The indefinite adverbs ºrds, ºri, trot, row, troët,
Troffév, Toré.
e. The conjunctions rai, Té, Toſ, flºw, Yé, ké (kév),
vº (viv), Tép, fid. Of these roi is sometimes proclitic as
well as enclitic: thus we have rot ydip rol.
a. If an enclitic follows an oayton, the acute accent is
restored: as dp06s tis.
ſ3. If it follows a proparoayton, or properispamenon,
it affects the last syllable with an acute accent: as gratoré
ue, anxóv ros.
ORTHOGRAPHY AND
ORTHOEPY.
21
'y. If it follows a proclitic, it affects it with an acute
accent; as et ris, tºo trep.
3.
If two or more enclitics occur in succession, an
accent may be added for every three syllables: as et rep
ºrís are uot pngiv troté, where et rep ris and ris ore pot are
considered to be successive proparoxytona.
§ VII. Stops.
56 In addition to the accents, which depend both on
the word and on the sentence, the Greeks have several
other marks to assist the reader, some of which refer to
words alone, and others to the members of the sentence
only. These are
a. for the word:
The apostrophe, which marks an elision, as in dºr’ &AAww
for dro &AAww.
rd
The coronis, which marks a crasis, as in rapyūptov for
dpyüplov.
The diaeresis, which marks a division between two
vowels, as in diorow.
b.
for the sentence:
The full stop, as in ºrpäyua.
The colon, as in trpayua
The comma, as in trpáyga,
The interrogation, as in trpáyua;
The names, kóAov (“limb,” “member”) and kāppa (“a
section”) refer to the parts of the sentence over which the
influence of the stop extends: for the same reason, the full
stop, which governs the whole sentence, is called a period.
A similar mode of speaking is adopted by the Jews, who
call their accents, which are modes of punctuation, kings,
emperors, &c., according to their domain in the sentence.
PART II.
ETY MOLOGY.
§ I. Divisions of the Subject.
57 IN Etymology three subjects come under discus
sion. First, the proper classification of different kinds of
words; secondly, the principles which guide the analysis or
dissection of an individual word; and thirdly, the pathology
of words, or the changes which are introduced into their
structure by the contact of incompatible articulations.
§ II. Classification of Words.
58. In the Indo-Germanic languages all words may
be comprised in two general classes: the PRONoUNs, or
words which indicate space orposition (puncta, eatremitates,
and lineamenta); and the worDS CONTAINING ROOTS, which
express the positional relations of general attributes.
59
In the former class, we find words, declinable or
indeclinable, as the case may be, without any admixture
with the other element of language.
Words of the latter class require the addition of at least
one pronominal suffix to make them words.
60 For this reason, we term the PRONoUNs or positional
words, the organizing, constituent, or formative element of
inflected language, and the Roots the material element.
61 By pronominal additions of a perfectly analogous
nature, the same root becomes either a Noun or a verB,
that is, it expresses either a thing, or an acting, or result of
acting. The only etymological difference between the noun
and the verb is this—that the pronominal suffixes, which
mark the inflexions of the noun, are fixed or adverbial, while
those which mark the persons of the verb are themselves ca
pable of inflexion. When they lose this independent power
of inflection they become intermediate affixes, and the crude
verb is then capable of receiving a set of case inflexions, so
that it becomes a noun. This sort of noun is called a par
ticiple.
23
ETYMOLOGY.
62 As, then, the noun and verb spring from the same
roots, or material part of language, and as their pronominal
or positional affixes are strictly analogous, it is unnecessary
to consider them as different parts of speech in an etymo
logical classification; and the eight syntactical parts of
speech when thus considered will fall into two great classes,
represented by the following table:
Syntactical.
Etymological.
Preposition
Formative element, or pronoun
º}
-
ronoun
Numeral
Noun
Material element combined
with pronoun
Verb
-
{ Adjective
Substantive
{ Participle
Verb.
The interjection is either an unmeaning cry or the
vocative case of a noun. The adverbs are either pronomi
nal words or cases of nouns. The numerals are adjectives
in Syntax, though etymologically pronouns.
§ III. Analysis of Words.
63 . The analysis of words depends upon our ability to
discriminate between the positional and material elements
of language.
64 Some of the roots are of positional or pronominal
origin; but the analysis of a word does not inquire into the
origin of its separate parts: it is satisfied with proving that
they are separate.
65 In the Greek, as in other languages of the Indo
Germanic family, the root is a monosyllable or quasi-mono
syllable, which appears as the variable part in a number of
-
words which are otherwise identical.
In compound words
there are two or more of such roots, but their disintegration
is a different, and easier, task than that which we are now
describing.
66 We conclude à priori that the constant part in the
identical forms, which are thus varied by differences of root,
is of pronominal origin; and we find on examination that
all the elements of it can be referred to one or other of the
primitive pronouns.
24
ETYMOLOGY.
67 There are three primitive relations of position:
here, near to here, and there, or juata-position, provinity,
and distance.
68 The three primitive articulations, which are used
to express these three relations of position, are the three
primitive tenues II Q T, pronounced pa, qva, ta; which we
shall call the first, second, and third pronominal elements.
69 Whatever syllable, in the constant or positional
accompaniments of roots, either contains one of these ele
ments, or can be proved to have been derived from it, is to
be explained in the same way as the pronominal element
itself.
70 The first pronominal element, denoting juata-posi
tion or here, is used to express (a) the first personal pro
noun; (b) the first numeral; (c) the point of departure in
InOtlon.
71 The second pronominal element, denoting proacimity
or nearness to the here, is used to express (a) the second
personal pronoun; (b) the relative pronoun; (c) the reflexive
pronoun.
72 The third pronominal element, denoting distance,
is used to express
the third personal pronoun; (b) nega
tion; (c) separation.
73 . The first pronominal element appears in Greek
under the forms tra and pa only.
74 The second pronominal element, being originally a
compound of guttural and labial, may present any form of
the guttural, and any form of the labial (see above 18 j)
except ua, which is strictly appropriated to the first ele
ment. The derivation is in each case so easy, that no con
fusion can take place. The greatest apparent difficulty
arises from the appearance of T, 6, or 3 only, instead of the
combination Ti, 6, 8, representing the sound j. But this is
only an apparent difficulty, for the original form presents
itself in the first stage of the investigation.
75 . The third pronominal element appears only as ra
or va, the remaining dental articulations being appropriated
to replace the sibilants which result from the guttural part
of the second element. The form va is sometimes transposed
to av according to 19. b. 1, and the v often evanesces,
according to 85, 106, 114.
Ö
76 The dental sibilants, which have attached them
ETYMOLOGY.
25
selves as secondary forms to the second element, obtain a
fixed value in the articulations pa or Aa, which imply mo
tion either to or from.
77 If any one of the elements of position is combined
with paaXa, it indicates motion and continuation in a
direction of which the element in question represents the
point nearest to the subject; and by subjoining any one of
the pronominal elements to any other of them, we denote a
motion or continuation from the position denoted by the
first of these combined elements towards that denoted by
the second of them: and so on if there are more.
78 The following are some important exemplifications
of this principle.
Pronominal Words and Forms.
tra-pa (= 1 + pa), “motion from here.” (482)
w[a]-po-ti (= 1 + pa + 3), “motion from here to there."
483).
ra-pa (3 + pa), “motion from thence.”
ta-Fa (3 + 2) “motion from thence to this neighbourhood,”
i.e. “approximation.” (This combination is used to
express the number 2).
Ta-Fa-pa (3 + 2 + pa), “motion from the point gained, as
in the last combination.” (This combination is used
to express the number 3.)
Ta-tos (3 + 3), “thence to there” (used to express the
superlative, as rapa expresses the comparative).
pe-td (1 + 3), “companionship, or pursuit with a view to
companionship.”
à-ua (2 + 1), “conjunction.”
Root-words.
79 In exemplifying the analysis of words containing
roots, we may select one which will show to the student
how the pronoun may become applicable to the formation
of a root; and consequently how the formative element may
resolve itself into the material.
The first pronominal com
bination mentioned above—namely, tra-pd—appears as the
root of a large and important class of words, denoting actions
which, in the strictest sense, imply and express their ema
nation from the subject as opposed to the object. The full
investigation of this and other like procedures, belongs to a
26
ETYMOLOGY.
higher field than elementary grammar. It will be sufficient
in this place to represent the facts as phaenomena.
tra-pa, pronominal word or preposition, “from the side of.”
ré-pa-v (1 + pa + 3 = A +3) adverb, “on the other side.”
tre-pd-w, verb, “to pass over.”
Tri-T-pd-okw, “to cause to pass over,”—“to sell.”
T-pa-yos (A + 2 + 3), noun, “an outward action."
T-pa-yya = ºrpärra (A + 2 + 2), verb, “to perform such
an action.”
ºr-pd-y-pa-T (A + 2 + [l +3].) verbal noun, “such an
action considered in reference to its performance.”
T-pa-y-ua-ti-kā-s (A + 2 + [l + 3 + 2), adjective, “a
person capable of acting.”
“tº (A + 2 + Él + 3 + 2]),
subst, “proce
ure.
Tpāy-oris = ºrpääts (A + 2 + 2), “acting,” and so on.
§ IV. Pathology.
80 From this short specimen it will be seen that the
analysis of words, or the search for roots, presumes some
knowledge of the legitimate interchanges or commutations
of letters. The explanation of this tendency to change is
called the Pathology (; trafloxoºkri) of a language, or the
doctrine of the affections (traffn), to which it is liable.
81 That letters pronounced by the same organ may be
commuted for one another, is a fact which our daily expe
rience teaches us: and no man can be acquainted thoroughly
with his own language without having had his attention
drawn to sundry changes resulting from dialectical differ
ences of pronunciation, or an attention to what is called
Euphony. The Pathology of the Greek language is not a
treatise on Greek Dialects, but an explanation of phaeno
mena in the language generally; a discussion which involves
not only the question of dialects, but also those referring to
the mutilations and corruptions which, according to the
leading principles of Hellenism, may be expected to take
place.
A. Affections of Consonants.
82. A consonant may be changed either (I) at the end;
(II) in the middle; or (III) at the beginning of a word.
In the first of these cases, the change will proceed from
some absolute law of the language operating on a previous
ETYMOLOGY.
27
alteration: in the second, from the letters which precede or
follow : in the third, generally some change within the
word, which brings into operation the rules of the second
CaSe.
83 (I) It is an absolute law of the Greek language
that no word can end with a mute, or with any other con
sonant than the three semi-vowels a, v, p. For those, which
terminate in § and Nº, are always combinations of a guttural
or labial with s. And if we meet with oux, oux, and ék,
we must remember that the two former never occur at the
end of a sentence, or before a consonant; and that the latter
is always prefixed to some word beginning with a con
sonant. In fact, ovk, or oux, is a mutilation of ow-ke, and
ék or é of é-kis: and being thus affected by the words
which immediately follow them, these monosyllables are
proclitic (above 54).
84 Of the other three consonants which may be finals,
v is often a representative of s, or contains it by absorption
(95), and p is of comparatively rare occurrence. Moreover,
when s is the final letter, it must not be preceded by a
dental or the liquid v (92,93).
85 The letters v, s, which are of most frequent occur
rence at the end of words, are themselves of such a weak
and fleeting consistency, that they often become inaudible,
and are omitted in writing. It is a rule that -vt- at the
end of a word should become a, i. e. the T cannot stand,
and the v evanesces: see below (106.) This is called apocopé
(drokotri) or apobole (diroſłoxii). The moveable v is com
monly termed v ćpeAkva:rików, or “w attached,” as if it were
an arbitrary and secondary adjunct. But this is known to
be an erroneous doctrine.
We find a moveable v in
a. datives plural in -iv,
3 p. pl. in -oriv,
c. 3 p. sing, in -ev,
b.
d.
in tauta-v, roorooro-v, rotooro-v.
e. in the suffixes -giv, flew, pu, and in certain particles,
such as kev, vvv, Taxiv, vörðu, everev, &c.
f.
in the numeral eikoaw.
We find a moveable s at the end of éð, mentioned above,
and in the following indeclinable words: drpépas, Šutras,
ripégas, audis, uéxps, äxps, row\ikis, uéganºvs, ottws.
28
ETYMOLOGY.
In the following there is generally a distinction of mean
ing, when the s is omitted: dupis, évrikpus, eúðſs. . In the
imperative, the 2. p. s. generally loses its s. But in axés,
q'pés, and some verbs in pu, it is retained.
It will be seen that the letters v, s become evanescent
also in the middle and at the beginning of words (106, 114).
86 (II.) The Greek language does not tolerate the fol
lowing combinations of consonants: pp, uM, (3v, 3M, px.
Whenever they appeared in the Pelasgian language, we
have in Greek the following substitutes: pſ3p or £3p for pºp,
as in d-uſ?poros, and in Épotós for uoptos: and p/8A or
for ux, as uéuſłAwka and 8Awakw from éuoxov : uv for £3v,
as in orepºvds for ore/3-vás: and AA for 3A or p2, as in kax\ds,
afterwards kaads, from kað-Ads.
87 Whenever a labial precedes p in the middle of a
%
word it is changed to p, as in Ypdºpw, ºpau-uń.
88 The diplasiasmus (8ttàaotaorugs), or doubling of
the liquid, in the last two cases, is termed assimilation, and
is of very frequent occurrence (100).
89 When a tenuis or aspirate guttural stands before
p, it is often changed into a medial; as in TAéy-ua from
TAéx-w. But there are exceptions, as depri.
90 Tenues and aspirate dentals remain unchanged only
before the dental liquids A, v, p.
91 Before other dentals, and the labial liquid u, any
dental may be changed into a as in ola-6a for olò-6a,
do-um for 0.8-mm. But we also find such forms as kev6adv,
trótuos. The combination a 6 seems to have been peculiarly
pleasing to the Greek ear, and many structures are due to
this predilection. We may also remark that or or 6 often
intrudes itself before u in verbal forms, such as the noun in
-uos, or the perfect passive in -uai. Compare 0eo-pids from
Tíðnut (root fle), fiv6-16s from piſto, with fixov-o-pal, ſixoiſ
o-0my from drovo, kéxpt-a-ual, éxpt-a-0ny from Xptw. In
all these cases, it may be a question whether there was not
a digamma still partially represented by or v.
92. Before or, the dentals are dropped; as Aamird-s for
Aaptrae-s, orºua-ort for aduat-gi.
93 The same is the case with the dental liquid v; as
in 8atuo-ort for Čaſuov-ori from 8aludv-tort.
94 But if a dental mute is omitted along with v before
o, the absorption is represented by a lengthening of the
ETYMOLOGY.
29
vowel, or by the substitution of et, ov for e, of thus for
Tavr-gi we have Tá-ai; for a révô-ow, a retaw; for Túr
Tovt-ori, Türtovori.
95 At the end of a word, -ov-s becomes -ov; -ovt-s
either -wv or -ovs; -evs and -evts become -my or -eis, -For-s,
or -Fo-s, becomes -os, -op-s becomes -top. Thus we have:
Baiutov, Tvrtov, dēows, kreis, Tifleſs, Tervºpuis, Acºs, firſtep,
for 6aiuovºs, Türtovt-s, 686vt-s, ktév-s, riflév-s, retupôt-s,
Aarós, £ntop-s.
Obs. There are some few exceptions to these rules, such as
Trépay-gai from paiva, Auws for £Auv0-s, &c. which explain
themselves. The preposition év, when lengthened by -s,
becomes els: but when it precedes or or (in composition,
it remains unchanged: the reason for this also is obvious.
96 When (3 and p, or y and X stand before or, they
are changed into trand k respectively, and the compound
sound is written N, or É. Compare the Latin scribo, scrip
si, scrip-tum, and rego, reari, rec-tum. That the aspiration is
lost, is clear from its transference to the beginning of the
word: as in 6pévo, #w, from 7pépw, Éxw. This is due to
the connexion between the aspirate and the sibilant, which
may also explain the omission of a between two aspirated
letters, as in Tétvq?-6e for Tétvq?-a-0e.
97 For the same reason an aspirate can never stand
before another aspirate of the same organ, but is changed
into the
corresponding tenuis; as in the forms Bászos,
Xatrºpw, III+0ews.
98 The same rule applies to two successive syllables,
where the former is the result of reduplication; thus we
have reqíAnka, Tíðmul, and not peºpſanka and 6:0mui. The
formative syllable 0n of the l aor. pass. is retained, whether
an aspirate precedes or follows it: thus we have riſq-0m-ri,
éré-0m-v, and not riſmºrn–0, €6é-rmy or riſq,0m-6, 406-0mv.
99. With regard, however, to letters of different organs,
the following rule applies without exception: a tenuis only
can precede a tenuis ; a medial, a medial ; and an aspirate,
an aspirate.
Hence from étra, Škºro, we have effoopios,
3yêoos, with a double change: and hence the root-letter is
changed by the termination; as in Ypartós, ypg|38mv from
Ypdºw, and TAex0eſs, tuq,0eſs, from Taekw, Türtw. So also,
in composition and synaloepha, we have éq6muepos from
fºrta ritépal, and vix6" &Anv from vökta ÖAmv.
:k
30
ETYMOLOGY.
Obs. The proclitic preposition és, for €ks, in composi
tion, is preserved from this change by the supposed inter
vention of its original s : thus we have exteſval, ékéoùval,
ék/3dAAéiv, Škyevéo-0a, Čkºpečyev, &c.
100 The consonants most frequently doubled are the
liquids, and t as the representative of a. The doubling of
these letters is generally indicative of assimilation.
101 Besides the cases already mentioned (above, 88),
the following are of frequent occurrence.
a.
The former of two consonants is assimilated to the
latter: a to v, as év-vvu for £o-vvut; k or x to o, as 8to-ords
for 8ty-gos (3156s); YAda-ora, Attice y\otta, for y\ox-ora;
8, r, 0 to or, as reo-ords for treč-ords, pºéAto-ora for uéAut-ora,
/3vo-ords for £3v0-ords. The assimilation in 'Arrikri for’Akrikri
is peculiar. Before a guttural, v is invariably written y
(above, 18 a); before a labial, it is always changed into p. ;
and it is always assimilated to a following liquid. We find
this chiefly in compounds with év, avy, and raxiv.; such as:
êykaA6, Šupuavis, éAAdytuos; ovyyevris, orvuqépw orvégitta ;
Traxtykoros, Taxipuljknk, &c. (see also below, 320).
102 (3. The latter of two consonants is assimilated to
the former; as in 6A-Avui for 3A-vvut. The assimilation of
a to a preceding p is regular in Attic Greek; thus we have
dippnv for dpornu, flagfielv for flaporeſv, &c.
103
But this sort of assimilation is most usual when
the second consonant is represented by a softened or vocal
ized guttural, equivalent to our y, and expressed in Greek
characters by e or . Thus for Yeved we have Yévva, for
0mAéo 64AAw, for Krávyw kºrévve, for &Atos &AAos, for poxtow
pºov; so too uáAAov for pºdatov, moroſov for hklov, &c.
And in a very large class of verbs, the sh or j, resulting
from the combination of a guttural or dental with y, is ex
pressed by org. Thus, from the gutturals with y, we have
Tpdoorw, qappdorow, rapdoorw, TAñorato, &c. for Tpdyyw,
ºpapudkyw, rapdxyw, TAñyyw, &c.; and, from the dentals
with y we have tºdaaw, tudoow, kopſgow, &c. for TAditya,
indvtya, kopſøyw, &c. In these cases the Attic substitutes
Tr for oro.
104 By the side of this assimilation we often have a
transposition or hyperthesis (109) of the 1, which represents
this softened guttural. Thus, by the side of AAw, ktévvo,
ºpdevvos, kpéa gov, Yéſipov, &c. we have elaw, ktetvw, pdet
31
ETYMOLOGY.
vos, kpetootov, Yeipov, &c. In some words this double com
pensation is always found, as in uéíčov for ueytov, and in
others the transposition alone remains, as in Kaepa for
Kapia, Yevéreſpa for Yeverepia, uéAava for ueAdvia, rºttes
for riſm"reori.
105 The arbitrary doubling of liquids is due to the
operation of a different principle of euphony: it is chiefly
found in proper names; thus we have TIapóevvotraſos,
though from tdp0évos, and 'Irröðappos for 'Introëapºos. So
also fi is regularly doubled, when a simple vowel is placed
before it at the beginning of a root, as in défferns or lodgāo
tros from 5étro.
106 The liquids or and v have a tendency to become
fleeting and evanescent when they are flanked on both
sides by short vowels. The former is changed into the
rough breathing, the latter into the nasal breathing, and
thus they pass off from the want of characters to express
them. Compare riſtºrm, rurreal with riflegal, and peſovs,
pet(oes, with uetºoves. It is not unusual to find v repre
sented by a before another consonant, or even at the end
of a word. Thus we have retiſqatat for retiſºvral, ow
{otato for ordſ' owto, rarepa for traitepv, &c.
If the combination vºr is left at the end of a word it
always becomes a. All neuter plurals are examples of
this (156). So also 3é-ka for Fé-kev'r (below 245).
107 With regard to the interchange of particular con
sonants with one another, it may be laid down as a general
rule, that only those of the same organ are susceptible of
this commutation. If it ever appears that a consonant
has passed into one of a different organ, there must have
been an original form which contained both consonants in
combination (above 18.j). Thus kexatvös and uéAav spring
from an original kuéâav. The most important instance of
this apparent interchange is that between it, k, r in the
relatives and relative particles.
108 The most common of the regular interchanges are
those of the dental liquids A, v, p with one another, and of
the sibilant a with v, p, and the dental mutes. Thus we have
£3évriatos by the side of BéAttoros
TAetſutov
-
kpi/3avos
- - - -
-
-
-
Tveiſuov
KA:flavos
32
ETYMOLOGY
and
r
r
ºrwarropuev for rurroues
oríop
– 6eds
º
r
.orv
-
Tu.
That the sequence of has an especial tendency to produce
this last change, we have already seen (18 c).
The Attic habitually substitutes TT for go : as in Tpdºr
Tw, y\6tra for Tpdoorw, YAdorora (above, 100, 101, 103).
109 Liquids, aspirates, and the sibilants, are liable to a
change of place which is called Metathesis (uetá0ers) when
confined to the same syllable, and Hyperthesis (Utrépôeats),
when it passes the limits of a single syllable. '
110 The former is very common: thus we have kauvºo,
kéxpnka ; 0\makw, flavov; 6dporos, 6pdaos; Épéal, Ééčai;
&c.
This sometimes occasions the insertion referred to
above (86): as in hu-3-porov for huaptov, peanuſ?pia for
péan riuépa, &c.
111 "The following are instances of Hyperthesis: 60yelos
for voteios, rvić, gen. Trvkvds, truexos from TAvva, Karayåos
from ékTAñorga, àx\os for 3Axos, &c. Hyperthesis very
frequently occurs in regard to the aspirate and the letter ,
considered as the representative of a lost guttural; indeed,
this is sometimes the rule (see 96, 104).
We have an in
stance of the latter hyperthesis in elv for éví, of the former
in d ºppotºos for 6 Tpo děod, and of both cases in eſv -eka for
evi ekot.
112 Prospective absorptions are referable, perhaps, to
the same euphony. Thus we have 8torkos for 3ſk-akos,
wdoxo for traff-a-ku, &c.
113 (III.) The affections of initial consonants are gene
rally dependent upon some change within the word which
brings into operation the rules applicable to consonants in the
middle of the word. Thus we have 8porós for poptés, from
the same metathesis and euphony which give us épéporos
for duoptos; we have £3Adokw for uda-oko, just as we have
péuſ?Awka for uépidAmra, &c.
114 The evanescence of or, or its subsidence into an
aspirate at the commencement of a word, is almost a rule of
the language when a vowel follows. We have sometimes
both forms as in oils, Vs; ordaaraa or 6daaga'a for &Aarga
by the side of dias.
But more frequently we have an
ETYMOLOGY.
33
aspirate in Greek where the cognate Latin words retain the
s: compare WAFn with sylva', exas with secus, Épiro with
serpo, Atos with sol, ÉÉ with ser, étra with septem, it vos
with somnus, &c. The element va often appears as d-,
when prefixed to nouns as a sign of negation, and it is
always reduced to 3-, when prefixed to verbs as a temporal
augment.
115 The same will sometimes apply when the or pre
cedes a consonant, as in 3doklos for (dokios = orodoktos.
116 This moveableness of a at the beginning of a word
has given rise to the opinion, that it is sometimes an arbi
trary prosthesis, as in a-karta, by the side of köttw, a-keedv
vvui by the side of keódvvvu, &c.; and so also when v evan
esces: but in these cases we recognise fragmentary repre
sentatives of lost prepositions, which also appear under the
forms ar-, do-, or div-, dva-, softened into un-, v-, and d-.
(See Pott, Et. Forsch. II. 127, sqq.)
117 The guttural mutes k, y, x, also subside into a
mere breathing, and are lost at the commencement of a
word, as in kaxw86 by the side of dauvè6, kapráApos by
the side of dpiraxéos, kvépas by the side of vépos, yaſa by the
side of ala, YAavkés by the side of Aevkós, x\iapós by the sides
of Alapds, x\aſva by the side of Aalva, &c. The digamma
contains a labial as well as a guttural (18.j); and hence we
see that while the labial element is sometimes expressed
by a consonant, it is sometimes lost with the whole com
pound sound: as in pdoxos (for uðy-orkos) by the side of
3rkos (cf. veh-0, vac-ca), uta by the side of ſa, unpūo by
the side of épúw, uov6oMeſo by the side of Öv6oxeſw, pºſpaś
by the side of ºpač, 3p3?ov by the side of £6809, &c.
118. A denta sometime supersedes
sibil
l
s
the
ant or
probably through the former (above, 18 f); as in
i
.
d'Aago a for ordaaaaa, BéAw for £Aw, Seſan from ean, &c.
It may also be surmised that the dental liquids are subject
to the same rule: cf. Aarºnpäs with alympás, Aeſ/30 with
eiðw, AdXun with éxun, &c. The aspirated dental liquid p
seems sometimes to involve a dental mute, and sometimes an
aspirated labial; of the former we have instances in T-pi/30,
8é-pkw, 3-pérw, &c.; of the latter, in 3-pââov, mentioned
above, in firiyvvut by the side off-rango, &c.
* cröAn is found in the old compound Xkartn-gūMm, the name of a
place in Thrace.
D. G. G.
3
34
ETYMOLOGY.
B. Affections of Vowels.
119 The affections of vowels may be divided into two
classes: (1) those which arise from the contact and coa
lescence of vowel-syllables, which also exist separately;
(2) those which emanate from the operation of some etymo
logical principle, whether it be the vocalization of a conso
nant, or the subsequent hyperthesis of the consonant so
vocalized. These are the only affections which take place
within the sphere of a given word. The changes of the
primary vowels according to
characterize differences
of form (above, 20 a.); and the diphthongal coalescence of
these primary vowels with the residuary mutes i, u, can
hardly be considered as a casual affection. There are, more
over, vowel-changes, which are due to the caprices of provin
cial pronunciation, and which mark differences of dialect.
Such are the substitutions of a for an original m, which
take place after a vowel or p in Attic (below, 161), and
generally in Doric, as compared with Ionic. We have also
p-à, A-à, where we should otherwise find o or e (181, 185).
The Attic, however, retains the original m in old words, such
as formul, Xpna.0al, &c. Other such changes are the substi
"tution of eu for ov, o for a, el for n, a for ei, et for ol, nv for a
and for ev, a for o, öny for Čop and 3a. Compare the AFolic
éued with épov, the Boeotic ovéðelke for avéðnke, at for et,
the Doric oikei for oſkoi, the Ionic ērvirtóunu for étiſ trouai,
the Attic priv for uév, Ural for Utró, and kpſºa, kpupmööv,
by the side of kptºnv. These varieties must be learned by
a study of the authors and of inscriptions.
.
120
The first class of vowel-affections, or the coa
lescence of vowel-syllables, is called synalaphe (avva»oupſ),
or “fusion.”
121 Of this synalaphe there are three principal varie
ties. (a.) synaeresis (avvaſpearis) “contraction,” which com
bines two successive vowel-syllables in the same sound.
(b.) crasis (kpāoris), “mixing,” which combines two suc
cessive vowel-syllables at the end of a word and at the
beginning of a word which follows. (c) ecthlipsis (Éx0Avis),
“elision,” which unites two successive words by omitting
a short vowel at the end of the former of them.
When
synapresis or crasis, takes place in effect, without an actual
expression in writing, it is called synizesis (avvíčnois), “sub
sidence.”
35
ETYMOLOGY.
Contraction.
122
a. There are two kinds of contraction: the
pri
mary, which is merely diphthongal; and the secondary,
which substitutes a long vowel, or diphthong, for two
vowels which do not admit of diphthongal combination.
123 The former has been already discussed under the
head of pronunciation (21–23).
124 The secondary, which melts down two vowels
into one vowel or diphthong, is guided by the following
rule:
ea =
oo:
E
3
2
ae = a
l
aa = a
oto = to
7
ee
E
et
to
oe
=
ov
eo
E
ou'
oo
E
ou
5
4
an = a
cro
E
00
en = n
eco
E
to
oto
-
a)
on = n Or to
In the dual of the 3rd declension ee seems to be contracted
into n; but this arises really from the original form in -ea:
thus we have both retxea and reixee by the side of the
contraction retxn. There is reason to believe that the con
traction of ae into n is more ancient than that of ae into a .
comp. Totnut, Ús, Xpnodal with tufts and Tuárðal.
125 If in the first three columns we add , the con
tractions in col. 1 are all written at ; in col. 2, g and ol
appear for a and ov, while et remains unchanged: in col. 3
p, oi, or appear for o, ov, ov. In columns 4 and 5, sub
script is subscript also in the contraction.
126 If v is added to o in column 3, the contraction
remains unaltered: for wu = 0 (above 22), and ovv = ov.
127 The following are examples:
(A) Simple contractions.
Col. 1.
Adas = Aas
2.
de6Rov = &0\ov
#:: 6pm
dºee = p(\et
aiðda = atóð
&n\dere = *n\oºre
36
ETYMOLOGY.
3.
4.
Tudouev = tutºuev
‘ptAéopiev = q^i\oupev
Tudn'te = Tipăre
pixente = plante
vods = vows
dirAdn = dràn
&nAdn'te = *n\tore
5.
tudio = Tuđ
ºpi\éw = p(A&
xpvrów = xpvoº,
128 (B) Double contractions.
l
2.
xpúa'ea = xpvaaf
tude - Tipá
ºptAéet = p^eſ
dºrAdai = dirAaſ
on Nöel = &nxoſ
4. and 5.
3
Tudouev = tuguev
pi\éouev = q^i\oſuév
tudn = Tipá
‘plain = pi\n
xpvrée
&n\dot = n\of
-
Xpwgä
arãon = dràn
dràote = drag
129 The following are exceptions:
deſpº
-
aipº
deukſa = alkta
pua 06m = uta:007.
Crasis.
130 b. There are two kinds of Crasis. In the proper
crasis there is a real coalition of two vowels in a lon
vowel or diphthong, as in rotºros for to Éros, xi.; for kai 3,
rapyūptov for to apºptov. In the improper crasis, the
long vowel at the end of a word appears unchanged, and
absorbs the short vowel at the beginning of the word fol
lowing, as in m 'yū, 'i'un.
131 If the preceding word begins with a consonant, it is
usual to place a coronis (56) over the new compound vowel,
whether it was originally aspirated or not, the aspirate
being indicated by the affection of the consonant in the
preceding syllable; thus we write kouk and 6árepa for ka!
ouk and ºrd repa. But if the preceding word is a mono
syllable beginning with a vowel, it is sufficient to indicate
ETYMOLOGY.
37
the breathing of that preceding monosyllable, as in durip for
6 durip.
132 When the first syllable of the second word has
an accent, it is lost altogether in the improper crasis: thus
we write un věov, not ºn"vöov. But in the proper crasis,
the second vowel alone retains its accent: thus we write
Tāaxa from ra &AAa, X&rav from kal &rav, rápa from rol
dpa ; and when the second word is atonic, the crasis does
not affect it with an accent; thus we have kei from kai ei.
133 Prepositions in composition are liable to crasis,
because this is not considered as synthetic or true composi
tion, but merely as a parathesis or juxta-position: thus we
write ºrpoiſ0nkev for Tpoéðnkev, trpoºxoviras for trpoéxoviras.
But an aspirate will hinder the crasis in this instance: thus
we have trpoéoval by the side of rpoºxoval.
134
There are a few cases of double crasis: as karðA
Awy for kał & 'Ardaxov, Hippon. Fr. XXIII (16), and
xijöovis for kai d "Aéovis.
Synizesis.
135 Synizesis may be considered as the incipient stage
of synaeresis or crasis. It is in reality a synalaphe, but
does not exhibit itself in the written forms.
136 As a substitute for synaeresis within the word, it
appears most frequently in those cases where e before a, o,
w is pronounced like our y; thus édiawkev is a trisyllable,
6eos a monosyllable, ºrdNews a disyllable. Sometimes we
find the same value assigned to 1, after a guttural or dental,
as when kapčía becomes a disyllable” (see above 17, 18).
Sometimes o or v have the force of our w, as in 37800s and
8volv, which are disyllables and monosyllables respectively
in Homer and Sophocles. There are some who would
express the synizesis of e by elision within the word: thus
Dindorf writes voxata in Eurip. Alc. 103.
137 As a substitute for improper crasis, we find syni
zesis of n, et, w, before vowels, whether long or short, and
even diphthongs; thus we have synizesis in un ov, Štre ov,
&n oikriorov, tºrto Hpak\ns, 'Evva\tº dvěpeiçávril, and so
forth.
* Dindorf would write kapga in three passages of AEschylus (vid.
Steph. Thes, 11, p. 1106 D.)
38
ETYMOLOGY.
Ecthlipsis.
138 c. Ecthlipsis, or elision, properly speaking, applies
only to a short vowel at the end of a word before a vowel
whether long or short at the beginning of the word follow
ing, and its proper mark is the apostrophe (56): thus we have
Tax āv for Táxa div, oids + iv for oiás re ºv, dºp' of for
dro ov, p 5 for ét} º, and so forth. Besides the apo
strophe, a change of accentuation sometimes marks the eli
sion, according to the following rule: if the elided vowel
had an accent, it loses this in the case of particles: but
nouns and verbs substitute an acute on the preceding syl
lable: thus we have dir'âAAwv for dro àAAww, but Ért'
#orav for étr+d £orav.
139 The following short vowels are not liable to eli
sion: (a) e in the 3rd person, which adds an v, (b) o in the
genitives in -oto, -ao, (c) in rept, ti, &ti, and the dative
sing. of the 3rd declension. With regard to the latter,
apparent exceptions belong to synizesis. Homer elides the
final of the dative plural: not so the Tragedians.
140 The apparent elisions of -a belong to synizesis.
Ectasis.
141 The second class of vowel-affections is known by
the general name of ectasis (éktaris), productio, or “length
ening.” It may generally be considered as a substitute for
some lost consonant, and frequently appears as a transposi
tion or hyperthesis. We have already considered this in its
connexion with the assimilation of consonants (above 104).
But, for the sake of system, the doctrine must be formally
stated here, in its relation to the pathology of vowels.
142 Primary ectasis appears as a direct insertion of
or v without transposition. Thus we have befovº by the
side of 3éovs, riotºxav for rſynv, Šešidorów for Šešćg.00, and
so forth. So also we have uovos by the side of uévos, vov
oros by the side of vooros, oùAduevos by the side of 6Aduevos,
and the like. But there are etymological reasons for these
insertions of v.
143 This insertion of t (if it can be called an insertion,
for strictly speaking it indicates the primitive form), very
commonly represents itself under the form e, with that
palatal pronunciation which so often yields to synizesis.
In Boeotian inscriptions we have the forms dyww.offeriovros,
ETYMOLOGY.
39
Xopayiovros, &c., for which the Ionians wrote, probably
with symizesis, dyovo0eréovros, Xopayáovros, &c., and the
Attics the contractions dywofferouvros, Xopayouvros, &c.
Compare also repéðouai with deſpo = dépyw, mºre with
evre, dAntºnín (pronounced dAnóñym) with dArifleia, &c.
144 As we have already seen, an apparent ectasis with
! is often nothing more than an hyperthesis of that letter.
The same occasionally happens with v. Thus éAaúva (root
éAa-) is to be explained by a transposition in the formative
adjunct vu-.
145 This hyperthesis must be carefully distinguished
from the strengthening of or v in the root, by the prefix e
or o.
Thus reiða, and wéro:6a exhibit modifications of the
root trið-, found in 3-tº-ov; ortreſów and ortrovëri, kéAévôos
and dróAov6os, point to lost rootsin which valone appeared:
whereas ué\aiva and éAaúva exhibit transpositions of the
and v. It is possible, indeed probable, that the e, o, pre
fixed to the root-vowels , v, may have originated in hyper
thesis, but, even then, this, as a transference into the root,
must be distinguished from the other transferences which
are more distinctly consonantal, and more formally termi
national. In comparative grammar the strengthening of a
root by prefixing e, o is known by the Sanscrit name guna,
i.e. “corroboration.” The substitution of n (involving a
vocalized guttural) for a is also a kind of guna, which
ºl. half-way between the prefix e, o, and the hyperthesis
Of t.
PART III.
IN FLEXION.
CHAPTER I.
DECLENSION OF Nouns AND PRONoUNs.
*
§ I. General Remarks.
146 It has been already shewn that every noun and
verb in the Greek language may be reduced, by stripping
off an affix, prefix, or both, to some single syllable, which
constitutes its meaning, and which is found also in other
words of cognate signification. This ultimate element we
call the root, stem, or basis of the word.
147 The prefix may generally be stript off at once, but
the removal of the affix is often a double operation. To
confine ourselves for the present to the noun, we find that
almost every word of this kind ends with a short termina
tion, often a single letter, which marks its immediate rela
tion to the other objects in connexion with it, and which
we call the case-ending. But in the majority of nouns, we
find, between this and the root, an affix, consisting of one
or more pronominal stems, which marks the definite class
and quality of the noun, and points out the restriction with
which the general force of the root is applied in the parti
cular instance. When the case-ending alone is removed,
the remaining part of the word is called its crude, or unin
flected form, whether it has another pronominal affix or not.
The affections of the uninflected form, as such, belong to a
different subject—that of the formation of words by deriva
tion or otherwise (Part IV). At present we are concerned
only with the cases of the noun.
148 The Greek noun (8voua, nomen) is either sub
stantive or adjective: the former expresses a person or
thing; the latter expresses the quality of a person or thing;
or, to speak more strictly, the former expresses an appro
priated, the latter an unappropriated quality.
º
41
INFLEXION.
149 The Greek noun has five cases (ºrridores, casus):
three numbers (dpiðuot, numeri), singular, dual, and plu
ral: and three genders (yevn, genera),—masculine, feminine,
and neuter.
150 The five cases are the nominative, genitive, dative,
accusative, and vocative. Properly speaking, the vocative
(KAntikri) is not a separate inflexion, but is either the crude
form, or the same as the nominative.
And the nominative
(suffeſa or dp0m, casus rectus) stands opposed to the geni
tive (yevikſi, kºrn-rikri, "ratpukm), dative (êotikri, érioraxrikm),
and accusative (alriatikm), which are called TAdytal trai
gets, casus obliqui. The Stoics and Peripatetics differed as
to the reason for calling these inflexions Trégets, casus,
“fallings.”
151 The genitive may be translated by “ of, from, out
of, by”: the dative by, “to, with, at, for": the accusative
corresponds to our simple objective case. The use of the
cases must be learned from the syntax. When a noun is
used absolutely in an oblique case it is called an adverb
(Griffnua, adverbium).
§ II. Substantives.
152 The following are the case-endings of the mascu
line noun in the singular number. Comparative philology
teaches us that the nominative case-ending of the noun, de
noting the subject, is to be referred to the second pronominal
element, which indicates relative proximity. To this the
genitive, denoting removal from the subject, adds the third
pronominal element under the form -v. The dative, which
denotes juxta-position, repeats the second element under
the form -i. The accusative, denoting the object, is con
tent with the third element alone.
Original Forms.
N.
G.
-Q
-orio-v, -6e-v (108)
Existing Forms.
-Q
-io, -os, -ou (106)
adv. -6ev, -wº
D.
-0, -$1, -1
-ºpi, -t,
adv. -0, -ºpt
-v, -a (106)
153 The plural is formed from the singular by the
Acc.
-t, -v
addition of the collective -s.
42
INFLEXION.
Original Forms.
N.
G.
D.
•ores
A.
-v-g
Existing Forms.
-es, - (106)
-wv (106)
--giv, -egoriv (91)
-atov-s, -orww (95)
t-ori-y
-e-ori, -t-s
-a-s, -ovº (95)
154 The dual presents abridged forms of the plural.
N. and A.
G. and D.
or absorbed.
•e
•lly.
155 The feminine case-endings are generally distin
guished from the masculine by the substitution of -ga- for
-a-. Sometimes by a reduplication of this termination, as
a for ta-ora, or -3-s for or-s. Comparative philology shews
that this extension is due to the wish to express more
strongly the relative and collective nature of things con
ceived as feminine or maternal.
Singular.
Original Forms.
Existing Forms.
N. -ora, -6s, -ós,
-ord, -ić, -a, -a, -s, (92)
G.
-ora-to-v, -ara-is
-orms, -ias, -ms, -as, -os, -tos,
D.
-ora-
-on, -ig, -n, -º, -, -ēl
A.
ora-v,
-Oos
-mv, -tav, -av, -a, -oa
Plural.
N.
G.
D.
A.
-ora-s
-ora-tov-s
ora-t-ori
Gav-s
-gal, -a, -a, -es, -óes
-ordov, -gov, -tſov, -óv, -ëav
-oratori, -tauori, -ators, -eoroi
-eart, -ēeat
-gas, -ias, -as, -ás, -óðs
Dual.
Terminations are absorbed, as in the masculine:
N. and A.
G. and D.
-ora, -ēe, -a, -a.
-oraw, -law, -aw, -čov,
- Oly.
156 The neuter has, strictly speaking, no nominative,
but uses for that purpose the accusative, originally in -r or
-v: it has no plural of this case, but substitutes for the
singular -T or -u, the combination -vir, which is invariably
softened into -ă (106). In other respects, the neuter in
flexions do not differ from the masculine.
157 The case-endings are differently affected by the
different terminations of the crude or uninflected form.
INFLEXION.
43
These differences are called declensions (KAforeis), and are
three in number: (I) the -a declension, when the unin
flected form ends in -a, or when the noun is feminine in
-ga, -ia, -a : (II) the -o declension, when the uninflected
form ends in of and (III) the consonant declension, when
the uninflected form ends in a consonant, or in - or -v,
which are ultimate states of consonants (above 20 b).
FIRST DECLENSION in -a.
158 (a) Masculine Nouns.
rapitas “a distributor.”
Root, rep-, -tau-, “to cut or divide.”
Uninflected Form, rap-aSingular.
tapita-s
tapitov (for rapu-á-o, -e-w, -e-o from taluid-giov)
Tauíg (for rauta-1, from rauia-0)
;
Tapuía-v
V.
Tapuſa.
Plural.
V.
;
rapital (for rapita-ores)
Taputov (for rapid-wv, from rapid-atov-s)
tapital-oriv, (for rapid-i-aw), and tautais
Tapias (for rapatav-s)
Dual.
N. A. V.
G. D.
rapiſa
Tapiſaw
159 Sometimes-la- is, through -ea-, contracted into n.
Thus:
kpitris, “a judge.”
Root, kpt- “to separate.”
Uninflected Form, kpi-Téa- = kpi-Tya.
N.
G.
D.
A.
W.
Singular.
kpitri-s
(for kpuréa-s)
kpitov Or kpitéw
(for kpuréao, from Kpired-glov)
kpitfi
(for kpuréa-1, from kpuréabi)
kpitri-w
(for koiréa-v)
kpité
44
INFLEXION.
Plural.
N. W. kpitat
kpittov
G.
spiralow,
D.
kpitas
A.
(for kpuréa-oes)
(for kpuredwu, from Kplted-glov-s)
or xpiraſs (for Kpired--aw)
(for kpuréav-s)
Dual.
160
N. A. V. kpitá
b. Feminine Nouns.
G. D. kpitaſv.
(a) In -arú.
Mojoa, “a recollector,” and “deviser," i.e. “Goddess of
memory and poetry.”
Root, uo-, or ua = uev (106) “to recollect,” “contrive."
Uninflected Form, udovt- or pudovt
Singular.
N.W. Mow-ora
pow-ons
(for udovr-ora)
(for uoiſ-ora-ts)
(for uoč-aa-1)
G.
D.
poſſ-on
A.
uov-od-v
Plural.
(for udovr-ga-s)
N. W. Moo-oral
G.
D.
A.
pov-ordov, uávorów
(for novod-giov-s)
pow-oral-gi, uoi-gais
poiſoras
(for uoč-orav-s)
Dual.
G. D. poiſoraiv
N. A. W. Howara
161 Sometimes the termination -ora is written -pā, as
in orpū-på for a quora, which substitutes a for n in the geni
tive and dative: sometimes it is represented by a long a,
and absorbed: this is always the case in the terminations
-ta for ediora = yasa, and -pa for pāorá or -pia, as in p
Aſa for pi\é-ga from p(\o-s, aloxpa for ataxpé-ra from
aloxpo-s (119); and sometimes there is absorption by contrac
tion, as in uvda, uvá; gen, pºvdas, uvās, &c. In these last three
instances the a is retained throughout all the cases. There
are also nouns in -età, -oud, which retain the short a in the
accusative also : such are evač;3eta, “piety,” orifyyvola,
“pardon:” but it may be laid down as a rule, that if there
is a corresponding masculine form in -tos or -pos, the
feminines in -ia and -pa will have the -a long, because in
this case there is an absorption of the added element -ora.
.
45
INFLEXION.
162 (3) In -iù for ió-gū.
j pixta “the friendship.”
Root, pix- “to love.”
Uninflected Form, pix-yā, or pixe
Singular.
Dual.
Plural.
N. V. p.Aſa
N. A. W. pixta
N. V. p.Aſai
G.
quxias
G. D.
p(\tau G.
ºptAutov
D.
quaíg
D.
quxtats
quxtav
A
quxias
A.
Similarly, iratēeſa, “the education,” tidań0eià, “the truth.”
163 Sometimes the -ta is written -ea; as in ovk-éa,
“a fig-tree;” and in this case the termination is contracted
into -n or -a throughout:
Singular.
Plural.
N. V. ovkéa, ovkn
N. V. ovkéal, ovkaſ
G.
ovkéas, ovkms
D.
A.
ovkég, ovkfi
oruketov, ovkov
G.
D.
A.
ovkéav, avknv
ovkéats, ovkaſs
ovkéas ovkás
Dual.
N. A. V. ovkéa, ovka
164
G. D.
ovkéauv, ovkaïv.
When the uncontracted form is obsolete, the con
traction is not indicated by the circumflex: thus from
tipid-ea,
Öſk-ea we have:
: “.
6%
xy
•
22
-
a-
f
r
rium, “honour,” or “price,” Tipins, Tufi, ripriv, ripaſ, &c.
Číkm, “equivalent,” or “atonement,” &tknº, ötkm, 8tºnv, Öſka,
&c.
Compare the masculine kpitris (159).
165
Sometimes the t of the termination is drawn into
the uninflected form of the noun (see 104): as in Aéauva,
“a lioness,” for Aedv-ta, which is declined like poºra.
SECOND DECLENSION in -o.
166 The second declension departs very little from
the primitive type. Masculine and feminine nominatives
retain the -s. The genitive in-flew often occurs: the original
-glo-v appears in derivative adjectives, as in Önué-ºto-c
from ēmuds: in epic poetry this appears as o-to, and in
common prose we have the contraction-ov for o-to = oeo or
00. In the dative the characteristic - is absorbed in the im
proper diphthong-p (above, 125). The accusative retains
its primitive -v. And the vocative substitutes -s for the
final -o of the uninflected form.
-
46
INFLEXION.
In the plural-o-ores becomes o-t = ol. The genitive-end
ing, as in the other declensions, is contracted into -ov. The
dative is-otori, or ots. The accusative substitutes-ovs for ov-s.
The dual is always -to, -ow.
167 The neuter preserves the accusative -v in the sin
gular, and, as usual, substitutes -ă for the plural –vºr. Of
course, the nominative and vocative do not differ from the
accusative.
In the other cases, the neuter corresponds to
the masculine and feminine.
168 The three nouns, A670s masc. “a discourse” (root;
Aey, “to pick or to speak;” uninflected form, Aoyo-), vooros,
fem. “a disease” (originally voºros, root, ver, “to flow;"
uninflected form, vöro-), and ɺov, neut., “hewn timber,"
(root, {{F- or {-, “to cut smooth,” uninflected form, ºxo-),
are the three usual examples of this declension.
Singular.
MASC.
N.
G.
D.
A.
W.
FEM.
Adyos
Adyov
vöoros
vdorov
Aóyº
vörip
Adyov
Adye
v6orov
v6ore
NEUT.
{{\ov
{j\ov
{{\p
§Aov
#UAov
Plural.
N. W.
Adyo
Adywv
Adyots
Adyovs
vdoro
vögov
vágous
vdorovs
N. A.V. Adya,
G. D. Adyow
Dual.
vögto
vögow
G.
D.
A.
-
§Aa
{VAww
£ºols
§aa
{v}\to
{v}\ow
169 When the uninflected form ends in oo or so, the
last two syllables are contracted throughout the declen
sion; thus:
Singular.
MASC.
N.
voos, vows
NEUT.
N.A.W.
Gorréov, -ouv
daréov, -oſ,
datéº, -º
G.
vöov, voo
G.
D.
A.
V.
vöp, vº
voov, voov
vöe, voo
D.
º
47
INFLEXION.
Plural.
vowv, viov
N.A.W. doréa, -á
G.
datéov, -ºv
voots, voſs
D.
N. W. vool, vot
G.
D.
A.
datéois, -oſs
vöovs, vows
Dual.
N.A.V. vow, vº
G. D.
N. A.W. daºréa, -u
G. D. dotéow, -ov
voow, voiv
When the uninflected Form ends in the digamma
170
F, represented by either
or v, the ultimate conditions
of its guttural and labial elements respectively—the ter
mination exhibits w throughout the cases (see 95). For
example, Aetºs, masc. “the people” (root Aer-, uninflected
form, AéFo-, also Ago-), gos, fem. “ the morning” (root av-,
or *F-, uninflected form, Fa-), dvayeov, neut. “an upper
chamber” (compound from divo, “above,” and yata “the
earth,” root Yat- or yeF) are thus declined:
Singular.
MASC.
NEUT.
N. W.
Aetºs
G.
D.
A.
Aetº
N. A.W. divºyeuv
G.
dvºyew
Aeg
D.
avaiyeº
Aetºv
Plural.
N. V. Aeg
G.
D.
A.
Aetov
Aegs
N A.V. dva yew
avºyeuv
G.
D.
avaiye(ps
Aews
Dual.
N.A.W. Aed;
N. A.W. divayew
G. D. Aegv
G. D. dvaiye(py
171 Similarly €ws, except that the accus. sing, is ºw:
and the final v is omitted with some other nouns of this
form.
It will be observed, that as this contracted declen
sion, strictly speaking, includes forms which end with
, or v, it belongs to the following, or consonantal declension,
according to which these nouns are also very frequently
declined. Conversely, it will be observed that nouns of the
third declension from forms in or v generally retain the v
of the accusative singular (below, 186).
48
INFLEXION.
THIRD or CoNSONANTAL DECLENSION.
172 To this declension belong all those forms which
end in a consonant, and in - or -u, considered as residuary
states of the guttural and labial elements of the digamma.
173 This declension recedes from the primitive type in
the following particulars only. The genitive singular ends
in -os. The accusative singular generally substitutes -ă for
the original -v according to 85, 106. The plural accusative
is consequently -ás. The nominative plural of masculine
and feminine nouns is -es for ores.
174. Neuter nouns generally exhibit the uninflected
form in the nominative and accusative; a characteristic
dental is omitted or changed into -s.
175 Apparent anomalies in this declension result from
the assimilation or absorption of the final consonant of the
uninflected form.
176 The uninflected form may usually be recovered
by removing from the genitive singular its termination -os.
The exceptions to this rule are confined to the instances in
which the characteristic is a dental, or sibilant, and Or -u.
177 Nouns of the third declension may be arranged
according to their characteristics, that is, according to the
letters which terminate their crude or uninflected forms.
178
a. Labial Nouns.
The characteristic and nominative case-ending are always
included in N. :
m pxév, “the vein.” Root, pxeF-, pxe6-, or p\v-, “to
N
bubble up,” or “gush forth.”
Singular.
V. ri pāév, (for p\{3-s)
q'Asſ?-6s
q\eſ?-?
ºpMé6-a (for p\{3-v)
Plural.
W.
pSéfl-es (for p\{3-res)
q\eg-ºv
q}\evlº-i (for p\eg-soot or p\eg-º-ort)
pAé6-a-s (for p\{3-vs)
49
1NFLEXION,
Dual.
N.A.V. p.Aé8-e
G. D. pké/3ow
So i Aaixa Nz, Aataar-os, “the storm;" i karnxiv, karr
Auq-os, “the staircase.”
179
Guttural Nouns.
b.
These nouns, with the exception of Yuwn for Yuvaík-s,
express the characteristic and nominative case-ending to
gether by É: 6 kópaś, “the raven,” for kāpak-s; 7 trépuš,
for Trépuy-s, “the wing;” and i öpić, “the hair,” for Tp(x-s.
In 6 Adpvyč, Adpvy'yos, “the larynx,” and d, ri Aºyā, Āvykös,
“the lynx,” an euphonic nasal, represented by y (above
18 a.), is inserted before the characteristic y or k.
Plural.
Singular.
kopak-es
N. W. G. Kopač
koodk-tov
kápak-os
G.
kdpafi (for Kopåsegaw, or
KópakD.
kópaka-s
kópak-a
A.
kopdiktoruv)
Dual.
N. A.V.
kápake
Kopåkow.
G. D.
Dental Wouns.
c.
180
I. Masculine and Feminine Nouns.
In these nouns the dental characteristic is always omitted
before the nominative -s (above 92), and when k precedes the
characteristic, it is combined with the s, as in the guttural
declension: i \aptras, “the lamp," for Aaputrab-s; 7 Arís,
“the hope,” for éATíð-s; mixipts, “the grace,” for Xapit-s;
6, jöpuis, “the bird,” for pv6-s; riköpus, “the helmet,” for
köpv6-s; 6 divač, “the king,” for divakt-s; i vić, “the night,”
for vökt-s; m Muivs, “the worm,” for €Auv0-s; 6 Aéov, “the
lion,” for Aéovt-s; 6 yiyas, “the giant,” for yºyavt-s; d rows,
“the foot,” for trøð-s; 6 doows, “the tooth,” for Gödur-s;
d TAakóes, “the flat cake,” for TAakóevt-s, contracted into
TAakoos for TAakovur-s (210); 6 utiºns, “the mushroom,”
for uvrnt-s; m Aevkotns, “the whiteness,” for Aevkotnr-s.
Plural.
Singular.
N. V.
G.
D.
A.
Aapºras
Aaptra?-os
Aaputrao-t
Aapºrdà-a
D. G. G.
N. V.
Aapºrdà-es
G.
D.
A.
Aapºrd-ori, (for Aapºrdà
Aaptra?-as
Aautrā8-wv
[oriv)
50
INFLEXION.
Dual.
N. A. W. Aapºrdà-e
G. D. Aapºrdà-ow.
II.
181
Neuter Nouns.
-
Neuter nouns with a dental characteristic either
(a) drop it altogether, as in rô origua, “the body,” for oriouar,
G. arºuar-os : or (3) change it into -s, as in Tó répas, “the
wonder,” for répar, G. répat-os. (a) If the characteristic
is -xt-, both letters are dropt, as in to ya Aa “the milk,”
for ydaakir, G. yaxakt-os. (as) If the characteristic is
-wr-, the v is retained, and the T alone is dropt, as in to trav,
“the whole,” for travr, G. travrás. (as) If the first syl
lable of the form has the diphthong-ov, the -v is transferred
to the last syllable, where it takes the place of the -at-, as
in ro ygvv, “the knee,” for youvar, G. youvar-os or ydva
ros. And (a,) if the last syllable of the form contains the
combination of p with another consonant, this liquid is
transferred to the end, where it takes the place of the T,
with or without a lengthening of the final vowel in the
nominative; it is omitted in the other cases, which retain
merely a short a, as in Yövaros, &c. The following are
examples of this form: To mºrap, “the liver,” for impat,
G. fra-ros: to orkap, “the dun ,” G. aka-Tös: to ū8wp,
“the water,” for ºpat (cf. ºpus), G. Jöa-ros. But i
3duap, “the wife,” for 3duapt—s has 3duaprios in the G.,
&c.
When -s is substituted for r in the nominative, it may
be dropt in the other cases, which are formed rather with
reference to this secondary, than to the primary form. In
some nouns (3) we have both sets of inflexions, as in to
képas, “the horn,” for képat, G. képat-os and képa-os, con
tracted into képus, as for képa-a-os (see 106): in others
(8,) we have only the secondary set of inflexions, as in to
oréAas, “the light,” G. oréAa-os. (y). Unless the syllable
which is terminated by the characteristic ris Aa orga (119),
the connecting vowel is o in the nominative, and e in the
other cases; the characteristic is s in the nominative, and
is invariably dropt in the other cases, which suffer con
traction also in Attic Greek; thus we have to reixos, “the
wall,” G. Teixeos, retxovs.
182 The following are examples of all the varieties of
Neuter nouns with an original dental suffix.
Dual
Plural
r-
r
orwpid-r-ow
G.D.
r
-
A.V.
ordina-r-e
N.
D.
orgua-ort
orwud-t-wv
G.
A.W.
orºua-r-a
N.
orºua-rD.
A.V.
orioua
N.
arºua-t-os
G.
Singular
cº
-----
dºg
-
Trav-T-olly
Trozy-T-e
Tra-ort
yaka-kºr-ow
Tepa-t-ow
-
-
yaxa-kºr-e
répa-ºr-e
Yaaa-É.
répa-ori
7tary-T-tow
º
r
Trav-r-ţr
yaxa-kt-wv
repa-t-wv
-
-
v-T-6s
Tra.
Trav-T-0.
ydaa-kºr-a
répa-ºr-a
-
Ma-kºr-os
répa-r-os
yd
wāv
yaxa-kºr
répa-r-‘
répa-r
ydaa
/3a
1
f
º
r
+
ta
r
r
-
-
r
kepd-ow
keptºv
-
yová-T-ow
ntra-t-ow
kepa
kepor-e
-
kepd-tov
keptov
ātra-r-e
'ydva-ºr-e
pa
iwa-ori
yova-ori
oréAg
kepº
r
-
7
Teixo-s
;
-a
x
reuxes
Ye-t
ºret
Teixovs
oréAa-os
képa-r-os
Teixe-os
oréAo-c
kepa-s
-
Teixn
Tetºye-e
Teixe-ori
s:
o'ead-ow reixe-ow
kepd-ºr-ow
reixoiv
-
oréAa-e ºx
képa-r-e
oréAa-ort
kepa-ori
Teixºv
kepa-ºr-a
oréXcº-w ºxTetºve-at
kepa-a
oréAa
Teixn
kepa
reixe-wv
oread-tov
kepa-ºr-wov
mtra-T-tow
7ova-r-wv
-
r
-
/3,
ſº,
képaoréAa
kepa-t-
Keotos
Kºpa-os
mtra-T-a
yova-T-a
fira-ryóva-r-t
a
-
r-
ima-r-os
yova-r-os
ntrap
7ovv-
Cº.4
da
52
INFLEXION.
183
d. Liquid Nouns.
The only liquid forms known in Greek are those of
which the characteristic is A, v, or p, and these are all
connected with the dentals.
Thus we have d &A-s, “the
salt,” G. dA-6s; 6 traičv, “the war-song,” for raidw-s, G.
tratăv-os; 6 rounv, “the shepherd,” for trouév-s, G. roſ
nev-os; d ?expi-s, “the dolphin,” for expiv-s, G. &expiv-os;
6 daiutov, “the deity,” for Öatuov-s, G. Satuov-os; d alºv,
“the age,” for atav-s, G. altov-os; to vékrap, “the nectar,”
G. vékrap-os; 6 flip, “the wild beast,” for flip-s, G. 0np
6s; 6 aidip, “the clear sky," for aibép-s, G. albép-os; 3
firep, “the orator,” for fiftop-s, G. privop-os. The de
clensions of these nouns are generally in strict accordance
with the previous examples. In the D. pl., A and p are
retained before -ai, but v is dropped (above, 93).
184 The following fem. and oxyton nouns are declined
not only like Čatutov, but also like aidºs: i elkºv, “the
image,” G. etkóvos and elkows, &c.; ridneau, “the nightin
gale,” G. ančovos and dimēows, &c.; n xexiētēv, “the swal
low,” G. Xexióðvos and xexíčovs, &c. The same contraction
takes place in the A. sing., and N. A. W. plur. of certain com
paratives in -tov, -ovos: thus A. sing. Meſova, ueſoa, uetºo;
N. V. plur. Meßoves, ſueſ oes, usičovs; A. ueſ(ovas, uet{oas,
peſovs (105). In o, ri kiſww, “the dog,” for kiſov-s, root Fov-,
the oblique cases drop the o : thus G. Kuvos, D. kuvi, &c.
185 . If, in forms corresponding to attrip, altépos, the
termination is -rep or -vep, we generally find a syncope in
the Attic dialect; in the latter case, 3 is inserted between v
and p, according to 86. Thus d tarip, “the father,” and
6 durip, “the man,” are declined as follows (cf. 51 a 4):
Singular.
N.
tratrip
durip
G.
tratp-6s
av-8-pós
D.
trarp-f
dv-3-pí
A.
tratép-a
div-8-pa
V.
ºrd rep
&vep
Plural.
N. V.
G.
warp-es
tratep-ov
du-8-06v
D.
tratp-d-ort
tratép-as
dy-8-pdr (119)
div-6-pas
A.
&v-3-pes
53
INFLEXION.
Dual.
N. A. W.
Traºrép-e
div-8-pe
tratép-ow
div-8-pow.
The fem. n xeip, “the hand,” for xép-lä, like 8wreſpa
G. D.
for Čatép-lä from Čatrip, wrép-s, is declined in the same
way.
186 e. Nouns in F, as represented by - or -v.
In these nouns the and v, which appear as substi
tutes for a lost digamma, are usually represented by e in
the oblique cases. The similar forms of the 2nd declension
present many analogies in their inflexions. When the or
v is retained throughout the cases, the G. and D. sing. end
in -os and -1, as in the other consonantal nouns. When
the e is substituted, the G. terminates with -os, and the
D. is contracted into -et. The A. sing. retains the primitive
-v, unless the Nom. ends in -eus, and then the A. is é-a.
187 a. Masc. or Fem. in -ºs. Neuter in -i.
ri tróAis, “the city.”
N.
G.
rô orívar, “the mustard.”
Singular.
troAis
taxe-ws or troAt-os
N. A. V.
G.
D.
trāAé, troAeſ or ºrdNii, ºrdM
A.
W.
ºrdaiv
troAi.
orívar,
orware-os
owdrei, -et
Plural.
N. V.
rāAees, -éis
G.
D.
TróAetov
TrôAegi
A.
"rdàe-as, -éis
-
N. A. W.
alvarea, -n
G.
orwaréov
awareou
D.
Dual.
N. A. W.
tróAée
G. D.
wroxéow
N. A. W.
G. D.
orivſtree
orwaréow
188 (8. Masc. or Fem. in -vs. Neut. in v.
d trixvs, “the elbow.”
to datv, “the city.”
Singular.
N. trºxvs
N. A. W. &orru
G.
D.
trixews, -éos
Trixei, -et
A. Trnxvv
W. trºxv
G.
dorreos
D.
ãorrei, -e,
54
INFLEXION.
Plural.
N. W.
trixees, -ets
N. A. V.
G.
D.
A.
wixeev
G.
daréov
Trnxeori
D.
do reori
dorrea, -n
wrixeas, -éis
Dual.
N. A. W.
trixee
wnxéow
G. D.
189 (31.
N. A. W.
&orree, -n
G. D.
daréow.
Fem. in -avs.
ni Ypaws, “the old woman.” rivatis, “the ship.”
Sing.
Plural.
Dual.
N. Ypaſs
N. V. Ypäes
N. A. W. Ypáe
G. ypads
G.
7patov
G. D.
Ypaoiv
D. Ypat
D.
Ypavorſ
A. Ypavv
A.
Ypá-as, Ypaws
W. Ypat,
Similarly vavs, which however admits of the change vetºs
for vags; comp. Aed's for Aads, above, 170.
190 (3,
Masc. in -eus.
d 6aoweiſs, “the king.”
Singular.
, Plural.
N. Baorixeſs
N. W. Baorixeſs, -7s
G. 3aoriMéws
G.
BagiNéov
D. Baorixeſ
D.
£3aorixeſort
A. Baorikéa
A.
BagiXéas, -eſs
W. Baorixed
Dual.
191
(3,
N. A. W.
BaoriNée
G. D.
BagiNéow
Masc. and Fem. in -ovº.
d, ri (300s, “the ox or cow.”
Sing.
Plural.
Dual.
N. Bows
N. W. Bóes
N. A. W. Bée
G. 306s
D. Bof
A. (300w
W. Boº
G.
D.
Botºv
Boüart
G. D.
A.
(36as, Bows.
Booty
192 With these we may compare the masc. or fem. nouns
in -os, -wos, and the feminines in -os, -w, -oos, -ows, for in
each of these cases v, as the representative of F, has been
55
INFLEXION.
absorbed (above,95). Take, for example, 6 ipos, “the noble
warrior,” for praor-s”, and jaičais, “the shame,” for alºo
Fíc.
MASCULINE.
FEMININE.
Singular.
N. W. ipos
G.
D.
A.
...
aléas
ripo-os
iipw-i
G. atóóos, -ows
D. atóói, -oſ
#pw-a, hpa
A. alèda, -6
V.
alóði, -07
193 In the same way as alèas, we may decline inxw,
“the echo,” for mixofó. Masc. proper names in -eiſs fre
quently have a corresponding feminine in -a, as Nn\eſs,
NmA4. These feminine nouns have no dual or plural. The
masculines in -os form their plural and dual according to
the rule.
194
f. Derivatives in -ns, -eos.
From neuter nouns of the class (y) are formed com
pounds, chiefly adjectives and proper names, by inserting
ea = n for o in the masc. and fem. nominatives and accusa
tives, e for o in the neuter nom. and accus. The other
cases remain unaltered. Thus, from to reºxos, “the wall,”
we have 3, 7 eureixis, to eurexés, “that which is well
fortified,” and from rò row &nuou a flévos, “the strength of
the people,” we have Anuorðévns, the name of the cele
brated orator, which, though resembling kpitris in the nom.,
is inflected after the model of relyos. In some proper
names, however, the analogy of kpiris is followed in the
accus. sing. Thus we have both 20kpárea, -n, and 20kpá
tny. If a vowel precedes n in the nominative of these
nouns (as in compounds with KAéos), a double contraction
takes place: thus, IIeptºčea becomes IIepikAéa.
§ III. Adjectives.
195 As the adjective expresses an unappropriated
quality, it is necessary that it should be capable of apposi
tion to nouns of different genders. It has, therefore, in
most cases three forms—a masculine, feminine, and neuter.
If, however, the adjective is not expressive of a simple
* That this was the genuine form of the word, appears from the
derivative ‘HoFaoios, which is so written in the Olympic Tablet. Böckh,
C. I. No. 11. 1. p. 26, sqq. For the lost r, see above, 181, 89.
56
INFLEXION.
quality, or if it deviates but slightly from the use of a
substantive in apposition, this motion through the genders
may take place either partially or not at all. Thus, when
an adjective is compounded of an adjective and substantive,
or of a substantive preceded by sº, d-, or övs-, or a preposi
tion, it is not usual to distinguish the masculine from the
feminine, and the neuter alone is represented by separate
inflexions.
And there are some nouns of the consonantal
declension which are used in apposition as adjectives with
out any change of gender".
(I.) Adjectives of Three Terminations.
196 When the fem. gender is represented by separate
inflexions, the first, or -a, declension is invariably adopted.
The masc. and neuter are never of the first declension,
when the adjective has three terminations, but always (a)
of the second in -os, -ov, or (3) of the third (3) in -às, -ſ;
(3,) in v-s, w; (3) in -vt-s, -vir; and (3) in Fór-s, Fór.
197 al. If the masc. and neuter are like Adyos, #8Aov,
the feminine follows the declension of rupiń.
Thus we have
d oropós, to go pov, but n goºm.
198 as. If a, e, , or p, precedes the termination, -a
is retained throughout, as in pi\ta or Xºpa. Thus d ispás,
to ispáv, but i ispá.
199
as.
If the masc. and neuter are contracted like
vdos or doréov, the feminine follows ovkéa, with of course
the same exceptions in favour of a, e, , p, before the termi
nation.
200 8.
If the masc. and neuter are like trnxvs,
datv, the fem. is like dań6eià.
201 (3,. If the masc.nom. is -v-s (one or other of these
being assimilated or absorbed), the neuter is the uninflected
form in -v, which appears as the vocative of the masculine.
Thus we have d péAas for péNav-s, tº and to péAav: o Tépnv
for répév-s (like rotumv for trofuev-s), tº and to répév. The
feminine is always -awā or -eivä for av-ta, ev-ta : and is
declined like Aéaiva.
* The text states the general principle, but there are such inconsis
tencies in practice that no general rule can be laid down for the learner's
guidance. See Lobeck, Paralipomena, Dissert. III. et VII.
57
INFLEXION.
202 (3s. When the form is vºr, the r is omitted in
the W. masc., and in N. A. W. neuter; and, in the N. masc.,
-avt-s becomes -as, as in rivas for ruvavt-s, tràs for
travt-s.
-evt-s becomes -eis, as in Yapters for Xaptev-r-s.
-ovt-s becomes -ovs, as in 1800s for 318dv'r-s (comp. odows),
or ww, as rumºrov for twºrrowr-s.
-vvt-s becomes -us, as in belxvils for deikvºv'r-s.
The fem. is always in -ord, like pow-ora;
i. e. from avt-s, a-ora
—
evºr-s, eo-ora or ef-ora
—
ov'r-s, ov-ora
—
vur-s, v-ora.
203 (3. The adjectives in Fór-s, Fór, have a femi
nine in -vſa, in which the v or labial part of the digamma
is still seen.
The masc. and fem. are sometimes found as
nouns; thus we have untpos, declined like ºptos, fem. un
Tpvia ; and we have the feminine forms diptvia, dyvid,
āpyvia, without any corresponding masculine. The exist
ing forms, with the full inflexion, are always derived from
the perfect of the active verb, and express the state which
results from action. In regard to the form of the oblique
cases, we may remark that paſs (parāt-s), pards bears the
same relation to retvquis (reruq6t-s), retvq?dros, that
ñpws (ºpfao-s), fipoos, does to aides (aloofi-s), alóóos.
EXAMPLES.
204
Class a.
Singular.
a 1.
orogºds, wise ;
M.
F.
as
N.
N.V. aroqds oroq m oroq du
G. orogov aroqms aroq'où
tepds, sacred.
M.
F.
N.
ispás
ispoº
tepd
ispás
lepáv
(epot,
D.
gopº goºfi cop;
ºp;
ispá
ispº
A.
oroq6v orogºriv oropov
tepov
tepay
tepov
W.
copé
ispé
tepd
lepov
ispot
iepāv
tepaí
tepºv
tepd
tepov
aroqm
orogów
Plural.
N.V. goqot oroq aſ oroqd
G. goq6 orogºv goqov
w
58
INFLEXION.
•
D.
A.
oroqois oroqaſs oroqoſs
orogous goºds oroga
tepoſs
iépous
º
-
is act tº
-
tead tº
spa’s
“po
tepas
tepa
Dual.
N.A.W. oopu, oroºd goºd
G.D. oropoſv oroq aiv oropoſv
205
N.
G.
D.
A.
V.
teod
teous
tepa,
t
spa
ºpe,
tepoſv
tepaw
sepow
as xpúaeos, golden.
Singular.
Xpworeos
xpvoréa
Xpvorous
Xpworn
xpvoréov
Xpva as
Xpworow
Xpworms
Xpvae'º
Xpworég
Xpvor?
xpvoº,
Xpworeov
xpvréav
Xpvorouv
Xpwormv
Xpworee
xpvréa
Xpworn
t
Xpworeov
Xpvorovv
Xpworéov
Xpvorov
Xpworée
Xpwoº
Xpworeov
Xpwoovy
Xpworeov
xpvorovv
Plural.
N. V.
G.
D.
A.
Xpworeo
Xpdaea.
Xpvoroſ
Xpvaaf
xpvoréov
Xpworów
Xpvačois
Xpworetov
Xpwortov
xpvréals
Xpworea
Xpwara
Xpworéww
Xpwortov
Xpworéotºr
Xpvoroſs
Xpwo-aſs
Xpvoroſs
xpvačovs
Xpworows
xpworéas
Xpvoras
Xpworea
Xpworá
Dual.
N. A.V.
G. D.
Xpvoréw
Xpworó
Xpworéow
xpvo a
Xpworó,
xpvgéaw
Xpworée,
Xpword
xpvaeow
Xpvoroſv
Xpworaiv
Xpvaoiv
darxdos, single.
Singular.
t
N.
drados
dràous
dºrAdm
darxn
r
dººr}\oov
t
-
ar.\ouv
INFLEXION.
r
G.
dradov
t
dradnº
dràns
-
a tràov
dºradº
D.
dradov
t
-
dºr?.ow
dràgn
dirAſi
dºradº
atrap
airAóov
dºradnv
dradov
e
-
-
t
-
arãº
f
A.
tº
arãoov
w
t
-
a tranv
-
a tr}\ovy
t
drade
W.
airãon
darxn
f
o:TrAdov
t
-
dººr) ouv
Plural.
t
N. V.
r
*
,
*
a
a 7t)\oo.
darxaſ
a TAo.
dºtMotov
airMov
a TrAotov
dradais
drado's
dirAaſs
a tr}\ots
t
r
-
-
-
dºr) tow
*
-
t
-
v
-
arxww
z
p
-
t
a tr}\dous
t
-
e
-
aqr Aoi's
A.
ºf
-
arxdous
e
x
t
dººr}\otov
D.
-
otrkoal
dirAof
r
G.
-
dºrkoot
dradas
-
t
r
a TrAoa
t
-
-
a raous
a TrAas
N. A.W. dr.A60
a tr}\oo.
a tr}\oto
an Ato
darxa,
a tr}\to
dirAdow
dradaiv
a tr}\dotu
a tr}\a.
Dual.
e
t
p
e
e
G. D.
t
dirAoiv
darxaſv
r
-
-
w
-
a TrAoiv
... àflpoos, -a, -ov, crowded, is not contracted, to distinguish
it from 40povs, noiseless.
dpyüpeos,
206
silver.
Singular.
N.
G,
dpyüpeos
dpyvpovs
dpyvpéov
dpyvpov
dpyvpép
apyvpºp
dpyüpeov
dpyvpoov
dpyvpéa
dpyvpd.
dpyvpéas
dpyvpas
dpyvpég
dpyvp?
dpyvpéav
dpyvpāv
dpyüpeov
dpyvpoov
apyupéov
dpyvpov
dpyvpée
apyvpp
dpyüpeov
dpyvpoov
60
V.
INFLEXION.
dpyſpee
apyupéa
dpyūpeov
dpyvpá
dpyvpoov
Plural and Dual like Xpworeos.
207 Class 3.
£3. Forms in -vs, -éia, -v.
Singular.
rjöus
rièéos
moé.
ričef
rjööv
N.
G.
D.
A.
mêws, sweet.
nºeſa
rièetas
rièeig
néeſaw
rjów
mêéos
rièé.
ride?
rjów
Plural.
N. W.
Jöées
mêeſs
rièéov
rièéori
rièéas
rièeſs
G.
D.
A.
N. A.W. 73ée
G. D.
jëéow
mêeſai
rjöéa
rièeitov
rièetals
rjöétov
rjöégi
ričea
rideias
Dual.
mêeta
rideſaw
ridée
rièéow
Obs. l. The Ionians said jöéa, 0nMén, &c. for jöeſa, ºn Aéſa,
in the old Attic, we find jutorea from iucus,
jº.
007.
Obs. 2.
%, find ev6éa, eupéa, in the Poets, for ev6ºv, supºv.
Obs. 3. Tpéoſłvs, venerable, has a feminine rpég|3spa, and
Tpérôa.
Obs. 4. In the poets, adjectives in -vs are occasionally
feminine; thus, in Homer we have jöös duruſ, and
"Hpn 07Wvs éodora.
N.
G.
D.
208 ft. Forms in -as, -aiva, -av.
péaas, black.
Singular.
péAas
péAaiva
péAavos
MéNavi
Hexatvns
Hexatvn
péAav
péAavos
péAav
61
INFLEXION,
A
W.
uéAava
péAav
pexawaw
péAawa
péAav
péAav
Plural.
N. W.
G.
D.
A.
pºaves
pleadvov
péAaori
uéAavas
péAawal
pexalvøv
pexatvats
MeXaivas
péAava
peXavov
péAaori
péAava
Dual.
w
N. A.W. puéAave
G. D. peXavow
pexatva
pexaſvatv
puéAave
pleadvow
Similarly, rdxas, unfortunate, which is the only other
example; but répnv, tender, follows the same analogy.
N.
Tépnv
Tepetva
ip
G.
Tépevos
Tepeſvns
Tepevos
w
f
"repely
&c.
&c.
&c.
This is a solitary instance, for other adjectives in my
are declined like àpanv.
209
£3. Forms in -vir.’
rivas, having stricken.
Singular.
rºl, aora
N. W.
rºyas
§
TWavros
Tvºgans
rºlavros
"ruvayººru
Tuvotor
"ruvayººrt
:::::.
::::::.
.
-
A.
rºlzav
Plural.
N. V.
rºlzavºres
G.
Tvvavrov
Túvaori
Túvavras
D.
A.
rivaorai
rvy, aortov
rvydaats
ºrvydoras
rivavira
Tuvavrov
Túvaori
Túvavºra
Dual.
N. A.W. Tuvavre
Tuvaora
Tuvavre
G. D. Tvyavtow
rvydoraw
Tvyavtow
So tras, "rāora, trav, and its compounds.
210
Xapters, graceful.
Singular.
N.
Xapters
Xapiérra
Xapíev
G.
Xaptevros
xapiéoons
Xaptevros
62
INFLEXION.
º
Xaptevri
xapiéoon
Xaptevra
xaplºgraw
Xaptev
Xapteoroa
Xaptevri
Xapſev
Xapſev
Plural.
W.
;
A.
Xaptevres
Xapiévrov
Xapter
Xaptevras
Xapteororai
xaplºgrow
xepisºgas
Xapteorolas
Dual.
Xaptevra
xapiévrov
Xapteori
Xaptevra
N.A.V. Xaptevre
Xaptev-re
xapiérra
G. D. xapiévrow
Xapteorolaiv
xapiévrow
Similarly, rvºpflets, having been stricken.
Singular.
N. V.
G.
D.
A.
rup6eſs
rvºp6évros
rvp0évri
ºrvp6évra
&c.
Tvø9eſora
ºrvpbeform
rvp6eſorav
ºrvp6év
rvºp6évros
rv46&vri
rv406,
&c.
&c.
Tvø6eforms
Dat. pl. rup6eſort, rv40etorals, rv£6eſort.
Adjectives in -neis, -neorga, -new, and -oets, -oecora, -oev,
admit of contraction thus:—
N. W.
Tipries, honoured; plexitóets, honeyed.
Tipries
ºrpheorga
Tipunev
ripinoora
ripinv
ripſis
ripinégorns
riprievros
Tiprievros
Tipriorons
ºrpińvros
Tipunvros
&c.
plexitóels
plexitous
Mexitóevros
Mexitovvros
&c.
&c.
peXtröerora
uéAutovorora
Mexitoéoons
Mexitowoons,
&c.
&c.
Mexíroev
peXttoov
peXtröevros
peXtrouvros.
&c.
6tbows, giving.
Singular.
8,800s
3.36, ros
&c.
3,300 ora
3,369
3,50worms
3.869'ros
&c.
&c.
Dat. pl. 8,80001, Čičova als, ŠtěoWort.
63
INFLEXION.
Turrow, striking.
Singular.
r
r
TuTr'Tºow
TuTrºrovoſo.
TuTrToy
rumºrov'ros
&c.
Tvrtoiſans
Túrrowros
&c.
&c.
Similarly, Škov, Škovora, Škov, willing.
Syncopated participles in Öv are declined thus:—
Singular.
N. W.
-
dyyeXtov
dyyexoovros
dyyeMoora
dyyeMoiſans
dyyeMoov
dyyeXouvros
And so on.
3eukvils, shewing.
Singular.
212
T
N. W.
G.
213
N. W.
G.
D.
A.
Seikvºs
3eikviſvros
f
3eikvoora
r
3eikviſons
&c.
&c.
{3.
-
-
-
-
deukwuy
r
&eikviſvros
&c.
Forms in -For.
Tervºpuis, having stricken.
Singular.
Terupuſa
Tervºis
Terupéros
retvq?vías
retvq?víg
Tervºport
tervøvſaw
tervſpora
Tervºpos
Tervºporos
retvq?dri
rerupds
Plural.
N. W.
Tervabóres
G.
D.
A.
Tervºpérav
tervºdori
tervipóras
Tervºvial
Tervºvitov
Tervºputats
retuquías
Tervºpota
retvq?orww
retvq?dori
retvq?ora
Dual.
N.A.V. retvq?ore
Tervºpore
Tervºporow
Tervºporow
Syncopated participles in -ºs are thus declined:—
G. D.
N.W.
G.
retvq?vía
tervºputaw
§arao's
érraſs
éortadºros
éorravia
éordora
éorrads
éorrºs
éorravías
éartoros
éorridorms
éo Tadros
éarrioros
And so on.
64
INFLEXION.
214 The following are anomalous (a).
péyas, great.
N.
G.
D.
A.
V.
péyas
peydāov
Singular.
peydan
peydāns
uéydaſp
Heydan
ueyday
péyav
peydānv
péya
uéya
péya or peºdae
péya
peydāov
peydan
Plural.
Heydao,
ueydatov
peydāois
peydāovs
Heydaat
peyaxtov
Meydaats
peydaas
N. A.W. Meydaw
G. D. ueydāow
peydaa
ueydaaw
N. W.
G.
D.
A.
peydaa
peydawv
prey&ots
peydaa
Dual.
(b)
215
peydaw
peydāow
troMiſs, much.
Singular.
N. W.
TroXi's
troXAn
G.
D.
A.
troXAoû
troXAñs
Toxi,
troAAoû
roxA®
wrox\fi
troXArív
Toxi,
N. W.
troAAot
TroMAat
G.
D.
A.
woxAtov
troAAoſs
TroMAtov
troXAd
troXAtov
TroMAaſe
Trox\oſs
ToMºv
troXAg
Plural.
troXAows
ToMAds
ToMAd
IIoMiſs is also declined as follows.
Singular.
M.
F.
N. W. TrovXús
G.
troXéos
I).
A.
N.
Toxi,
.-
TrôAet
troXAdv
Plural.
N. W. Troxées c. toxets
G.
troXéov
D.
troAéort
A.
troXéas c. réAets
troAv
wroxéa
troXéa
The Ionic declines it regularly, troAA6s, -i, -ów.
65
INFLEXION.
216
N.
G.
D.
A.
W.
(c.) Tpāos, gentle.
Singular.
Tpāos
Tpaeta
Tpdov
Tpaeſas
Tpāov
Tpdov
ºpée
Tpºp
Tpaeíg
Tpaeſaw
Tpaeſa
Tpaov
ºrpāos (e)
Trpaov
Tpāov
Plural.
ºrpāot & Trpaeſs
Tpačov
trpcious & trpaéort
Tpdows & trpaeſs
N.W.
G.
D.
A.
ºrpaeſa,
Tpaeuſov
trpaetals
Tpaeſas
Tpaéa
Tpaéov
Tpaéort
Tpača
Dual.
N.A.W. Tpdw
Tpaeía
Tpaw
Tpdow
Tpaeſaw
G. D.
Tpdow.
The neuter of &AAos, “another,” is not &AAov but áAAo.
In other respects the declension is regular.
(1.I.) Adjectices of Two Terminations.
217 In the following instances, there are generally
two terminations of the N. and A. ; the one common to
the masc. and fem., the other appropriated to the neuter
gender.
218
A.
Of the Second Declension.
a. Compounds of a noun preceded by an adjective, a
preposition, or the particles eſſ, d-, 3vs-: as
6, n ueyaxdºočos,
...to ueyaxdºošov
o,
n ºvéožos
§os,
º, n.
to v&očov
e
-
-
- ºr
r
w
v
w
r
w
*/
o,
me ev’rekvos,
r
e
To currencvoy
6, ºf abdivaros,
To d6avarov
*
-
-
N -
w
-- -
r
To ovatoruov.
o, n ovotroTuos,
If the noun included in the compound admits of con
traction, the same contraction will be observed in the adjec
tive: as
o, m eitãoos, eúTAovs, to eitãoov, eitãovv.
t
t
w/
-
w
-
--
219 (3. The same rule applies generally to adjectives
in -tos or -ºpios derived from substantives: as
6, n 36Alos,
d, ixpnguos,
D. G. G.
ºrd 36Auov
ro Xpriguov.
66
INFLEXION.
220
y.
When the form is -eos for -eros: as
o, ri (Aews,
221
B.
al.
To taewv.
Of the Third Declension.
Derivatives from dental neuters of the form (y): as
6, jeureixms,
To eitelyés (see above, 194).
222 as. Or from dental feminines: as
o, ri eixapis,
To eūxapt.
G. eūxcipitos
223 ft. Or liquid forms: as
6, ri āpany,
To àporev.
G. dparevos
6, n ordiq pov,
to a 64 pov.
G. rappovos.
To this class belong all comparatives in -ov.
224
y.
Or forms in t or v : as
6, n topus,
To Yept
6, n &ttnxws
To eitnxv.
Derivatives from TóAs present some anomalies: as
o, n &toxis, to dTox. G. -têos. A. -iča and -w
(III) Adjectives of One Termination.
225 These are mostly nouns, which are used in appo
•
*
*/
v
ºf
~
sition with masculine or feminine substantives, and have
no neuter form because they are rarely placed in concord
ance with neuter substantives: as
o, i, dyvds. G. dyváros.
§ IV.
Pronouns declined as Nouns.
226 It has been already shewn (58 foll) that pro
nouns, or positional words, are to be distinguished from the
nouns and verbs to the formation of which they contribute.
But in the later or syntactical state of the language, the
pronouns are themselves liable to pronominal inflexions of
case, and on that account are classed with the noun.
227 All pronouns are by their nature demonstrative.
But the ordinary nomenclature confines this term to one
class of those which are connected with the third pro
nominal element. Without losing sight of the established
terminology, the following classification presents the true
subdivisions of the inflected pronoun.
228 As there are three primary positions,—here, near
to here, and there,—we arrange the inflected pronouns
according as they express a greater or less removal from the
speaker or subject.
67
INFLEXION.
229 Thus we have (1) the first and second personal
pronouns, éyò, ori, which express “I” and “thou,” or the
person speaking and the person addressed. (2) The re
flexive pronoun , which expresses that the object is also
the subject. (3) The pronoun of self, or sameness, airós,
which expresses identity, and and is combined with all the
three former pronouns. (4) The relative pronoun, Šs,
which approximates in meaning to , but is more definite.
(5) The distinctive pronoun 6, which is called the definite
article. (6) The indicative pronouns 66e, oùtos, and ékeſ
vos, which express as distinct from the subject the three
positions, here, near to the here, and there (hic, iste, ille in
Latin). (7) The indefinite and interrogative pronouns,
6 &eiva, and ris, which imply that the object is somewhere,
but do not define where it is. (8) The relative-indefinite,
ôotis, compounded of (4) and (7), the meaning of which it
combines. (9) The reciprocal pronoun, dAAñAww, which
expresses an interchange of relations between two objects.
(10) The correlative adjectival pronouns, Totovtos, Toorov
tos, Tnxikouros, Tuvvouros, which express comparison of
quality, degree, &c.
All these, except the last, have the government of sub
stantives, and those included under (1) and (2) have
their own adjectives which are called possessives, éuds, gos,
£ds, &c.
230 The pronouns (2), (4), (5), (7), are all derived
from the second pronominal element. The others are com
pounds.
231
(1) First and Second Personal Pronouns.
€ya, I.
au, thou.
Singular.
éyd;
N.
G.
D.
A.
éuov, uov
éuot, uoi
éué, ue
-
N.
G.
D.
A.
orv
oroo
orot
oré
Plural.
mueſs, we
vueſs, you
mutov
nuſu, nuiv
muás
Judov
Juiv, Juiv
Juas
68
INFLEXION.
Dual.
N. A. vºi, viº, we two
a pioi, orºg, you two
G. D. vöiv, vºv
orqov, a pºv
232
(2) Reflexive.
7, himself or herself.
Singular.
Plural.
N. :
G.
N. crqeſs
G. orqov
D. orgia.
D. of
Dual.
N. A. orbwé, a pa
G. D. orquív
A. orgas. Neut. orgéa
233
Dialectic Varieties of éyò, orv, f.
Singular.
N.
iyo,
Dor. or
7", i AEol
#yovya
fav,
Boeot.
fºovya
-
Tú Dor.
Tºwn, Ep.
Touvi, Boeot.
Tovun, Lacon.
r
G. Šuéo
Ion
*** } Eol.
*2" | Dor
Mev
-
éueūvn Lacon.
éueſo
éuéflew
-
éo, eú, Ion. Dor.
oréo, ored, Ion.
... Teoſo, Ep. eſo, Bev, Ep.
éows, io9, AEol.
gºver, poet.
reo, rev,
Teos, reous, Y Dor.
Tíos, Tíos
} Epic.
-
D. Gufw, Dor.
Buivya
égivn Hom.
peof or
pept2
|
éoſ,
Teiv, Ep.
ºv, Dor.
tot, Ion.
f
A.
Ep.
Tív, Dor.
r
Té, Tív, tº Dor.
a pé, poet.
iv, viv, piv, poet.
Plural.
N. nuées, Ion.
dués, Dor.
âupes, AEol.
Juées, Ion.
Jués, Dor.
Üupes, Æol.
69
INFLEXION.
G. muéov, Ion.
a péov, Ion.
orqetwv, Ep.
Juéov, Ion.
tumov, AEol.
duutov, AEol.
nuetov, Ep.
D. dupi, AEol. Ep.
vuetov, Ep.
tupu, AEol. Ep. a ptoſi, org.ſv, poet.
Juéas, Ion.
orq'éas, Ion.
Wupe, Æol. Ep. age, poet.
A. muéas, Ion.
dupe, AEol.
Dual.
apwé, a pai, Ep.
234 (3) Pronoun of self, or sameness.
autós, -í, ó, he, she, it, or self (below, 444).
Singular.
-
r
-
avros
N.
G.
r
-n.
-o.
-ms
-ov
-ou
-
-
-
-*
-n
-*
-on/
-nu
-o
-ois
-ows
-aſs
-as
-oſs
-d
G. D. -oſv
-aſv
-oiv
D.
A.
Plural.
N.
G.
autof
-ov
-d
-ov
-at
-ov
D.
A.
Dual.
N. A. aura
-d
-d
So 6 airós, “the same,” though the Attic Neuter is
more frequently raúrów than railrd for to airó.
235 The same combined with (1) and (2).
éuautov, of myself.
oreavrov, of thyself.
G.
Guavroſ,
suavrº
euautov
D.
A.
-ms
-n.
-riv
-ow
-g
-6
oreavrov
-ms
weavrº
-n
-*
oreavtov
-mv
-o
-ow
éavrov, of himself.
Singular.
G. davroſ, -ms -oº D. Šavrò -n -º
A. Gavrév -ív -6
Plural.
G. Gavrév -øv -øv D. Gavroſs-aſs -oſs
-
-
-
-
r
-
-
-
-
-
r
f
A. Gavroſs -ás -á.
For oreavrov -ms-ov, eavrov -ms-ov, they say also gav
Too -ms-ow, autov -ms-ow ; and for the plural number of
éautoff, these are used: a pøv autov; cºtou avroſs ; rºpás
y
r
auTouc.
These pronouns never occur in Homer as one word, but
always separated, as, ép' airów, -riv, -ó, and autºv, of aurë.
70
INFLEXION.
In the plural the first two are declined as two words,
each by itself; as,
G. mutov aurov
D. muſu avroſs
-
-
*
-
-
*
A. muás
-
-
muſv auraſs
muás auras
*
t
autows
-
So Juáv aurëv.
236 Possessive Pronouns, having the Government of
Adjectives, and derived from (1) and (2).
Possessive Pronouns are declined exactly like adjectives
of three terminations; thus:—
éuds -ſi-6v, mine.
ords -ij-6v, thine (Doric, réos).
éds or òs, in or i, Čov or öv, hers (Ionic).
a pottepos -a -ov, belonging to you two (Ionic).
voirepos -a -ov, belonging to us two (Ionic).
riuérepos -a -ov, our.
Juérepos -a -ov, Ayour.
orq6s -ſi-áv, his, her, their. And
orq’étépos -a -ov, generally only in the plural, as the pos
sessive of a qeſs; but also used of the other persons.
(4) The Relative Pronoun.
237
Singular.
N. 3s # 8 .
G. où
Plural.
aſ
ā
tov
tºv
tºv
ms ov
D. :
;
A. §v
#v 3
-
;
Dual.
N. of
D. oſs
aſs
of
A. oils
às
&
N. A. &
G. D. oiv
&
aiv
&
oiv
238 (5) The Distinctive Pronoun, or Definite Ar
ticle.
6, ºi, td, the person or thing.
Singular.
Plural.
M.
F.
N.
G
ºrd
Too
M.
G.
roo
n
rºs
D
Tø
th
Tº
N.
G.
D.
A.
Tov
Trív
Td
A.
N.
N. A.
G. D.
tº
Toſv
Taſs
Toſs
rats
Td
F.
N.
Td
Taj
Taſv
Tolv
at
Tov
N.
rows
Dual.
M.
F.
of
rov
Toſs
Td
rtov
7T
INFLEXION.
Dialectical Varieties.
Singular.
G.
G.
D.
A.
roo
Dor.
Dor.
Tns
To
Tås
th
Dor. Tº
Trív
Dor.
Ion.
Toto
Ion.
Ion.
Taiww
Toſort
Tav
G. fem. Tov
Plural.
Dor. Táv
D.
D.
A.
Dor.
Toſe
Epic and Ion. Thai, Taiot
Taſs
Tows
AEol. Tos.
Taſs
In certain cases the nominative masculine is also Šs. See
below in the Syntax (388).
239
(6) Indicative Pronouns.
bee', this (here); ouros, this (near); €keſvos, that (there).
Singular.
Plural.
afoe
Tøvče
Tade
ºrtovče
D. Toſor&e” Taforee
A. Tovače Taorée
rotorøe
race
er tº
-
•
N. 33e
moe
Toče
G. row8e
Tmorèe
Tojöe
D. 7&e
ride
rigèe
A. Tovče
trivée
ºrdēe
N. offee
G. rovče
Dual.
Tatēe
Taſvěe
N. A. Tajóe
G. D
roſvěe
r
Taſbe
Toivoe
-
*
ovros, this.
N.
oºros
G.
roſtov
Singular.
airn
Tavrns
D.
roſtæ
Tavrn
A.
Toorov
Tavrmv
rooto
Toſtov
to tº
Tou To
Plural.
N.
oºrot
G.
Tourov
at Tau
Tau Taº
* In the Attic dialect we find the pronoun * used as an inseparable
affix to all these pronouns; this termination is long, and has the accent;
thus: ,óði,
oùrooi, kewogi; also G. routoiſi, Tavrmai; Pl. ouroń,
attail, ravri, &c. And so also in adverbs, as évôaði, &c. 'Ev'rav6ol is
a later form, for which we should read Švrav0t in the Attic authors, and
èvrev6ev in Homer. The affix -ce gives the same force to certain pro
nouns in Latin.
* Homer places the case-ending after the affix, as in roſa deat and
toiodegau.
72
INFLexion.
-
r
D.
rotºrous
Taurotic
A.
tourovs
Toru'raç
Tourouc
r
Taota.
Dual.
-
r
N. A. Touro
ºrau-Tot
G. D. Tourou,
Toru Totiv
Tour(s)
w
-
Tourouw
ékeſvos is declined like avrds (234).
240 (7) Indefinite and Interrogative Pronouns.
6 &eiva a certain person (whom one does not wish to name).
Singular.
t
-
w
... i.
N. d,
Tov, Tns,
G.
D.
A.
7%,
rāv,
79,
Triv,
Plural.
of Öeives
tov Četvov
-
To deſva
N tov Šeſvos
-
N
-
Two detvu
!,
-
td &eiva
It is sometimes indeclinable.
ths, any one, some one.
Singular.
M. F.
N.
M. F.
Th
N. The
G. rivas or toº
N. rivés
G. Tuvov
D. Tia'ſ
r
A. Tuvas
D. rivt or tº
A. riva
Dual.
Plural.
N.
Tí
N.A. rivé
rival or à tra
G. D. rivoſy
-
-
Tuvo. Or arrºra
The pronoun interrogative, tis, “who?” is declined like
the indefinite, ris, except that the accent remains on the
1 throughout the cases.
241. (8) Relative-Indefinite Pronoun.
Gotis, whatsoever.
Singular.
r
--
N.
G.
D.
A.
#ric
oorris
-r
oùruvos or örov
örto
twº
to
or
t
º
8vºriva
--
o Tu
º
mortivos
outivos
r
firivu
º
en
(0.7°ulyl
º
mvruva
o Tu
Plural.
ef
N.
G.
D.
A.
of rives
t
tov.T.ſvtov
ey
ofatuori
en
ovarivas
--
a tºtalyeº
-
a Tivor
--
ort of Tuo"t
otorTuoru
r
do rivas
-
atruvot
Dual.
w
N. A. ºrive
G. D. oſwºrivolv
-r
attve
aſviruvow
-
to Taiwe
ofu'rivolv
73
INFLEXION.
242
Plural.
(9)
Reciprocal Pronoun.
Dual.
G.
dAAñAww -6v -wv
G. D. dAAmaow -aw -ow
D.
A.
dAAMAois -ais -ois
dAAſſaous -as -a
A.
243
dAAñAw
-a
-w
(10) Correlative Adjectival Pronouns.
too ouros, so much.
N.
G.
D.
A.
roorooros
roarovrov
Singular.
rooraúrn
Tooraúrns
Toorooro and togovtov
too out?
Togatºrm
Tooroúrp
Tooroorov
Tooraúrny
roarooro
N.
G.
D.
A.
Toorooroi
Tooroúrav
Tooroúrois
roo avºrai
rooroºſt ov
Tooravitats
Tooroºtous
rooratºras
roorowtov
Plural.
Tooravara
roorowtww
rooroſtols
Tooravara
Dual.
N. A. rogov’rw
G. D. Tooroúrow
rooravita
Tooravraw
Tooroúra;
roooºrow
In the same way are declined rotooros, rnNikooros, &c.
244 These pronouns are called correlative, because
they always refer to a relative expressed or understood, in
connexion with which there is generally also an interroga
tive and indefinite pronoun: thus rogoºros, with tdoos and
Tögoobe, refers to the relative 6aos and the interrogative
and indefinite trooros, roads: Totooros with rotos, and
Tolórðe to the relative oids, and the interrogative and in
definite troios, troids: and so on.
§ W. Wumerals.
245 Comparative philology teaches us that numerals
are closely connected with the primitive pronouns, and that
they are themselves positional or pronominal words (above,
78). In fact, the first numeral, originally pets, gia, uév, is
identical with the first pronominal element. The second
numeral 3ſo = 8é-Fo contains the second element. The third
numeral t-peſº = TâF-peſº contains the second numeral with
the element -pa superadded. The fourth numeral was
originally tré-ropes, i.e. tre (= 1) + ropes (= Tpels) q. d.
74
INFLEXION.
1 +3=4. The fifth numeral, originally kPévre = kmévre
(whence Trévre by 107), is connected with an old root kFev,
“to take,” found in the Homeric yevto, in kiſov-s, “the
dog," i.e. “the seizer," Latin canis, and in hund, “hound,"
“hand,” &c. As meaning the “hand” with its five fingers,
it refers to the old method of counting five by shewing the
open hand. Similarly the tenth numeral, éé-ka = &Fé
kept- (by 85), means “two hands,” i.e. the ten fingers on
the two hands held out together. There are greater cor
ruptions in § = oré (by 114) = koré-ks (by 107) = 3+3;
in 3rta = cré-ºr-ta = kore-tr-ta = 3+4; and in évvéa = €vvéFa
= 10–1. The eighth numeral is the dual of “four.”
246 It is a remarkable fact, that the first four nu
merals in Greek and Sanscrit, and the first three in Latin,
are declined, while all the others remain without inflexion.
There must be some reason for this.
Now we know that
the oldest Greek year was divided into three seasons of
four months each: and the subdivision of the fundamental
number twelve in the state-division of the Ionians into the
factors 3 × 4, of which 4 was the basis, need not be insisted
on.
The first four numerals, therefore, would be more fre
quently used as adjectives than the others, and for this
reason would have inflexions, which the others, whose use
would be more adverbial, might omit without so much in
convenience. The same remark applies to the correspond
ing fact in regard to the numerals of the Romans, whose
fundamental number was three.
247 Numerals are divided into two classes, A. Cardi
mals, B. Ordinals. The former express a definite number.
The latter express the position of the objects in a succession
of numbers. So that although the cardinal is by its origin
a positional word, it includes in its meaning all the positions
up to that which it designates: for this is the process in
counting.
248 All ordinals are declined like adjectives of three
genders.
249 A. Cardinal Numbers (answering to the ques
tion, “How many ?”)
els, one.
N.
G.
eſs
§vás
pita
puás
ev
évés
75
INFLEXION.
D.
A.
Pug
Šví
eva
-
el/t
* /
-r
-
-
z
Litav
el/.
Compounds of eſs.
ovºets and undeſs.
N. ovćeſs (in later writers oºspita
G.
D.
A.
ovićevos
ováévi
ovečva
Loubets)
ouèév
ovéeuías
ovečvos
oveeuíg
ovćevi
ovečv.
ovoepfav
So undeis, undeuta, unbév.
ovo, two.
250
N. A. & ſo, or öſto
G. D. &volv, or öveſv.
Another form of the dative is 8vorſ.
So dupw, both.
Dual.
N. A. dupw.
G. D. dupow.
rpeſs, three.
252 régorapes, or rérrapes, four.
251
Plural.
M. F.
N.
N. Tpeſs
G. Tpiſov
Plural.
M. F.
N.
Tpía
N. régorapes
régorapa
G. regro dipov
D. Tptorſ
D. régorapal
térpart in the Poets
A. Tpeſs
Tpía.
A. Téoorapas régorapa.
253
Cardinals and Numeral Signs.
a', eis, one.
£3, 8vo, two
Y, Tpeſs, three.
Téa orapes, four.
€2
Trévre, Jive.
s', #, sia.
girta, seven.
m", 5xtto, eight.
évvéa, nine.
8éka, tem.
ta', Evêeka, eleven.
18, 34beka, and 8vºeka, and Čvokatēeka, twelce.
17, Tpiakaſoeka, and Čekatpels, thirteen.
76
INFLEXION.
13, regaraperkaſ?eka, and reorgapakaićeka, four
teen.
te', revtekaíčeka, fifteen.
is, ékkatēeka, sixteen.
ić, Čarrakatēeka, seventeen.
in, 6&twkatēeka, eighteen".
10, €vveakatēeka, nineteen.
k', etkoort, twenty.
ek kai eſroot”, twenty-one.
8vo kai etkoori, twenty-two.
Tpeſs kai etkoort, twenty-three.
régorapes kai etkool, twenty-four.
ºrévre kai etkoori, twenty-fire.
kº, §§ kai etkool, twenty-sia.
kč, ćitta kai etkool, twenty-seven.
kn', 6kta kał eikori, twenty-eight.
k6", evvéa kal elkori, twenty-nine.
A, Tpidkovra, thirty, Ionic Tpirikovra.
u', reororapakovra, forty, Ionic regaraprikovta.
v', revºrrisovra, fifty.
# , §§nikov'ra, sixty.
ka',
k;3,
KY,
kö,
ke',
o, #38ouikovra, seventy, , ,
Q, II,
T, oyconsovra, eighty, Ionic Gyöwikov'ra.
or p ºvemkovra, nºnety.
p', Škatów, a hundred.
a', takóriot, two hundred, Ionic ēinkório, de
clined thus:
Plural.
Nom. 8takóoriot
Gen. Čakoortww
Dat. 8takoortois
-Ott
-or
-tov
-toy
-Cats
-ots
Acc. 8takoorſovs
-as
-O.
* Instead of “eighteen' or “nineteen, the Greeks frequently said
“twenty wanting two’ or ‘one:’ e. g. viies Övelv or utús 3éovoral eikoat,
; : ships, wanting two or one, i.e. 18 or 19 ships; and so for 28, 29,
, &C.
* In the composition of two numbers, if the smaller precedes the
two are joined by kat; if the greater, the conjunction is omitted:
as, arévre kai etxoort, Herod.; etkoort arévºre, Demosth.
But there are
exceptions. The cardinal numbers compounded with orév signify :
1. *together.’ gévôvo, two together.
2. “at a time,' or the distribution of a whole number into equal
aliquot parts, orávrpets, three at a time.
77
INFLEXION.
T', tpiakdoioi, three hundred.
v', regarapakóortoi, four hundred.
(b', revtakóoriot, five hundred.
x', Śakóriot, sia hundred.
V', trakóriol, seven hundred.
w', 6xtakóoriot, eight hundred.
TS, eveakóoriot, nine hundred.
ja, xíAioi, a thousand. (lit. “as in a heap of
fodder.”)
/3, dioxiào, two thousand.
/y, Tptory:Atol, three thousand.
3, regarapakia Xiàto, four thousand.
p, uptol, ten thousand. (lit. “as in drops of
water.”)
254. Ordinal Numbers (answering to the question,
“Which of the number?”)
Tpºros, first.
&eirepos, second.
Tpiros,
third 3.
r
Térapros and Tétpatos fourth.
Trépºrtos, fifth.
ékºros, siath.
$330pos, seventh.
8,800s, eighth.
ëvaros, ninth.
3ékaros, tenth.
évôékatos, eleventh.
8wöékatos and ovokatēékatos, twelfth.
Tptorkatēékatos and Tpiros kal 6ékaros, thirteenth.
Teaorapakatēēkatos
h
téraptos kai 8ékaros,
fourteent
*}
-
eikoo'rds, twentieth.
eikorrós Tpáros, twenty-first.
Tpiakoards, thirtieth.
Terrapakorrós, fortieth.
Trevrnkortos, fiftieth.
ěšnkortos, sixtieth.
* totrov juvráAavrov means 2} talents, i.e. the first a talent, the
second a talent, the third a half talent. So Tétaprov, tréuartov, #360
How, &c. ºutrāAavrov, 3}, 43, 6% talents. On the other hand, tpia,
Tévre, &c. jultd Navra signify 3, 5, &c. half talents.
78
INFLEXION.
éſ??ounkortés, seventieth.
dyöonkortos, eightieth.
évveunkootós, ninetieth.
éka-rootds, hundredth.
otakooriogrós, two-hundredth.
Tptakooriogrós, three-hundredth.
Terrapakoriogrós, four-hundredth.
XıAtoortós, thousandth.
puptogrós, ten-thousandth.
and so on.
255 Móvos, “alone,” and Érarros, “each,” are of the
mature of ordinals.
The former is connected with the first
numeral : the latter with ēkas, and with the Sanscrit &ka
= “one.” It has also the form ékárepos, “one of two.”
256 From the feminine of the ordinal may be formed a
secondary ordinal expressing the day on which an event
happened; as Tpiraſos dºré0avev, “he died on the third
day,” i. e. Tpirm nuépg.
257 We have also multiple adjectives, dTAóos, “single,"
3rtados, “double,” Tpitados, “treble,” &c. (for the declen
sion see above, 205). Rarer forms are ëtqdorios, Tpiqārios,
&c.
258
Proportional adjectives are such as:
BitNdorios, “twice as much,”
Tpitxdolos, “thrice as much.”
259
Numeral adverbs are such as:
draft, “once,”
êts, “twice,”
Tpts, “thrice,” &c.
260
§ VI. Adverbs.
When some case of a declinable word—whether
substantive, adjective, or pronoun—has fixed itself abso
lutely for the expression of certain secondary predications,
(see Syntax, 436) it is called an ADVERB.
261 Sometimes the adverb corresponds exactly to some
existing case of the noun; as
D. kouièm, “with abundance,” i.e. “very much.”
A. gpyriu, or Triu Gpxiv, “at the beginning,” i.e. “at
all,” “wholly,” “entirely.”
INFLEXION.
79
And sometimes to a noun with its preposition : as
Tapaxpnua, “along with the business,” i.e. “on the
spot,” “directly.”
kaflātep = ka0 à rep, “according to which things in
particular,” i.e. “like.”
The apparently irregular forms vſktop and éutočaiv, are
contractions for vuktós dipº and to €v troov čv (cf. td v
Tool eixeijueva. Herod. II. 76).
262 Sometimes it preserves a genuine but obsolete
inflexion; as
G. ovipdvo-0ev, “from heaven.”
D. awºró-61, “there.”
A. oiko-v-Če, “homewards.”
and Plural D. 'A6 ſynori, “at Athens.”
A. 'Adrivače for "A01jvao-de, “to Athens.”
263. In these terminations the principal changes are
the following:
0ev becomes -0a, -ëa, -ēov, -ēnv, -tei, -t, -s.
6, becomes -ot, and even -ov.
be becomes -éis, and in derivatives from pronouns it
is always -a.e.
The greatest irregularity is that which we observe in
relative and interrogative adverbs. Thus instead of
30, “where,” tró0, “where?” we find ov, toº, which
are properly equivalent to 30ev, to dev:
and instead of
6ae, “whither,”
rôore, “whither ?” we find ot, tol,
which are properly equivalent to 30, 160.
264.
The most common form of the adverb is when
the Gen. is assimilated to -os. There is hardly any ad
jective which cannot furnish an adverb of this form ; thus
oroq6s, “wise.” G. goqow, adv. goſpas, “wisely.”
ríðūs, “sweet.” G. 78éos, adv. jôéws, “sweetly.”
Xapters, “graceful.” G. Xaptevtos, adv. xapiévros,
“gracefully.”
evèatutov, “happy.” G. eucaſuovos, adv. et Saipadvas,
“happily.”
We have seen, however, that it is only with nouns in
F that we practically find this G. in -ws as a case. Many
of these adverbs cast off the final -s as āqvo, äval, &c. and
we have both oùrtos and outw.
But it may be doubted
80
INFLEXION.
whether the latter forms are not connected rather with the
D. than with the G. to which we assign the adverbs in
—ws. Dialectical variations, such as éºol, Éw, would
seem to point to this; but these forms are in many
instances so mutilated and corrupt, that we can scarcely
hope to arrive at a certain analysis. Thus, in the cor
relative adverbs, those in -ws refer to manner, as trios,
“how !" Tws, “some-how,” wis, “in what way,” &c. And
yet the shortened form to refers to time, as in otte,
nondum, “not yet," i.e. “at no previous time.” If te
is added to the crude form, another relation of time is
expressed; for tróte means “when ;", trote, “at any time;"
+&re, “then,” or “at that time;” 8te, “at which time:"
où trote, “not at any time,” “never,” nunquam, either
of past or present time; ot traitote, “never yet,” “never
at any previous time.” In perhaps the only passage in
which tº appears as an interrogative (AEschyl. Agam.
1507), it is obviously synonymous with trios.
The following table shews how these irregular adverbs
are used to express place, time, and manner.
r
º, (p
Interrogative.
l & where 2"
*
Trd.64. (poet. )
Indefinite.
“any where,"
Tobí
.”
Trov,
Tov,
róðev, “whence?”
Troore.
(DOet. l .. whither ?”
roi." (poet.)
trofláv, “from anyplace,"
r
-
wrot, “ some whither,”
z
-
l
2
Trote, “when 2"
-
2
Toré, “at some time.”
zy
r
tros, “how !
trø, “how”
>
3.
Tras, “somehow,”
waſ, “at some time, yet,"
Trn, “whither ?” “in what way?” irri, “in some way.”
Dependent Interrogative.
Gró0,
6trov,
“ where 2"
ord6ev, “whence?”
•
*
O'Toore
en
2
}
-
“whither ?”
otrol,
orrore, “whenever.”
3rws, “as.”
àrn, “whither?” “in what way?”
81
INFLEXION.
Relative.
Demonstrative.
60,
r
+001, “there.”
-
où * } “Where.”
>
roðev, “thence.”
wanting.
Töre, “then.”
Tais,
*-**,\ ... so.”
cºde,
|
66ev, “whence.”
of, “whither.”
8te, “when.”
er
ws, “as.”
>
-
:
Th,
*-*
Thee, Tavrn,
r
“in this
way.”
, “where.” “in which
t
--
way.
We have also trnvíka, “at what particular time?” with
its correlatives dirnvíka, tmvika, trivikauta, rmvikāše and
nvika.
265 Participial adverbs in -ëa, -ēov, -ēnv, express the
mode of action, and correspond to another class in -t, -rel,
which is still further softened into -s, or even -a attached to
the simple stem: compare àmpiyêa, drpukteſ, drpić; dwa
pſydnv, dvduty&a, dvauíč, dvdutya. The contemporaneous
existence of these terminations may be further seen in uéya,
and udaa, compared with pdyls, and 16A4s.
266 Adverbs with this participial signification are
often derived from nouns: thus, we have kuwn-86V, “dog
wise;” kavaxm-èd, “noisily;” eipſić, “side-ways,” &c.
And even from other adverbs, as Trépić, “around.”
267 To the same list belong a considerable class of
adverbs in -ív-8a, expressing the names of games (tratēºv
Övöuara, J. Pollux, Ix. 110), such as datpak-ivêa, “the
game of the potsherd;” flag Xívča, “the game of king;”
&c.
268 Although there is sometimes an apparent identity
between the adverb and the nom. masc. of an adjective,
what we have seen of the mutilations which take place in
these forms, will caution us against supposing that this
identity is real. Thus ºutras or Šutra is obviously evºrãoriv,
and although evöſs is an adverb as well as ejóſ', the coin
In Attic Greek eV00 refers to place, as ev6ū A6mvrºv, “straight to
Athens;” and ev60s to time, “straightways.” Heindorf. ad Plat. Lys.
p. 203 E.
D. G. G.
6
82
INFLEXION.
cidence of the former with the masc. adjective is only the
accidental result of a corruption probably of the genitive
adverb.
We see in the Prepositions, which are all pronominal
adverbs, the extent to which this corruption may be carried.
§ VII. Degrees of Comparison.
269 The usual method of expressing a comparison
between two or more objects in regard to quality is by
affixing, to an adverbial inflexion of the adjective denoting
the quality, the syllables -te-pos, when two objects are
compared, and the syllables -ta-tos when more than two
objects are referred to. The former, as we have already
seen (78), expresses motion from a certain point, and away,
and the latter, motion through a series of points. Conse
quently if koºpo-s expresses the quality of “lightness,”
kovgºd-repos means “light beyond or before a certain point
or object,” and kovſpó-ratos, “light beyond a series of such
points or objects.” And this is always the meaning of
comparative and superlative adjectives.
270 As might be expected from the length of the
increased word, the adverbs, to which these terminations are
appended, always appear in an abridged or mutilated form.
If the penultima is short, the adverb retains the w before
these affixes; if long, o is the only representative of the
original -ws; thus
goºd-s
oroga-Tepos
oroga-taros
kov po-s
kov po-repos
kov på-ratos
271 . If the adjective-form ends in -v, -es, -av, or -ap,
these affixes may be immediately appended to the unin
flected form (above, 268): as
y\vki-s, -iſ
YAvkº-Tepos
7Avkū-taros
dAndrí-s, -és
dAndéa-Tepos
a Mm6éo-taros
péAas, -av
pexdv-Tepos
peAdv-ratos
uákap
uaköp-tepos
pakap-ratos
272 If the adjective-form ends in -vir, this is softened
into a, on account of the dental following: thus
Xapters for Xaptevt-s, xapiéa-Tepos, Yaptéo-tatos.
273 Compounds of Xàpts for Xàpit-s, form the com
83
INFLEXION.
parative and superlative from the gen, on the same princi
ple as in goºds, goquitepos: thus,
eixapis
euxapital-repos
euxapurai-Taros.
274 Adjectives in ov (ov-s), and # (k-s), change the o
of the genitive into e : thus
orºppov, G. geºppovos, owſppovéa-tepos, orwppovéo-tatos.
275
From a noun in -ns, -ov, or -ns, -eos, we have
sometimes a comparative in ta-Tepos: as KAértne, k\erría
repos. This is also the form adopted for AdAos, “talk
ative;” dvoq d'yos, “gluttonous;" trioxás, “beggarly.”
276 Contracted forms -oos, -ovs, following the analogy
of Xapters, change the neuter v into a as
darAdos
dºt\oeo-repos
-oila-Tepos
ejvoos
euvoéo-repos
-ova-Tepos
Some other long forms adopt the same change: as
éâgouévos
épôwpevéa-tepos
atóoros
aidotéo-Tepos
277 Forms which present adverbial inflexions in -al,
or have by-forms in -os, which are in themselves of a com
parative nature, attach the comparative suffix to an adverb
ial inflexion in-at: as
Traxaids, adv. trāal,
Taxaſ-repos
dauevat-rata
ºptAaſ-Tepos
dauevos, old infin. dopéval
q}{\os, by-form pſalos
But taxatos has also traXato-Tepos; doptevos has dorue
vaſ-repos and douévéo-tatos; and pi\os has three other
forms: ‘pta-repos, ºptA-Tatos, which is commonest, and
ºptAº-repos, quxuſ-tatos, pix-ſtov, pixia-tos, which are less
r
w
w
a
usual than pixat-Tepos, pixat-tatos.
278 As it is nearly certain that the terminations
-repos, -ratos, are thus appended to adverbial forms of
the adjective, it may be scarcely necessary to remark that
they may be appended to pronominal and other adverbs.
Indeed, the prepositions themselves indicate a similar
process of comparison (so wºrd, Utré-p, &c.): the ordinals
have the superlative affix -tos, unless two only are com
pared, as in Čei-Tepos, Ška-Tepos; and many pronouns re
ferring to a comparison between two have the same ending,
as €-Tepos, oveč-tepos, tro-repos, &c.
6–2
| 84
INFLEXION.
279 The comparative degree is also expressed by the
qualitative ending -wov = -lov-s, which is merely a strength
ened form of the qualitative termination -tos; compare the
relative words med-ius, al-ius, with the comparative end
ings -ior (for -ios), neuter, -ius, G.-ióris. This qualitative
ending, which is appended not to an adverbial inflexion,
but to the uninflected form, does not imply excess like that
in -Tepos, but only a considerable amount of the quality
indicated by the adjective—rather more than less—and
this is often the force of the Latin comparative. So also
our termination -ish, as brack-ish = “rather salt than
otherwise,” &c.
280. The comparatives in -tow are, for the most part,
appropriated to positives in -vs, or to other positives, chiefly
in -pos, which seem to have had by-forms in -vs, or, which
is the same thing, adverbs in -ts. From this latter form,
there is a corresponding superlative in -ros, which bears
the same relation to the ending in -taros, that rpſ-tos
does to Tp(-taros. Thus, we have
now-s
riè-tov
hoto-tos
where the penultima of -tov is long in Attic Greek; short
in old Epic and Ionic (above, 39).
281 Similarly, because airy-pés and kax-3s (for kax
A6s, from kač-Ads, above, 39) had by-forms in-vs, as appears
from alaxi-voltai and KaNA-vo, we have
alax-pés
alax-ſov
aloxia-tos
kaAA-tow
ka)\-os
köMAta-ros
282 If the ending -ºs is preceded by a guttural or
dental, the
of the termination is either transposed or
absorbed, and the guttural or dental is represented by a
compound sibilant (above, 104).
Thus we have
Taxiſ-s
0doratov (for ray-tww)
Ba0ſ-s
£dog ww
péyas (udyis, magis)
peſov (for ueytov)
ravia-ror
%. º Å.
uéyto-Tos
283 When the termination is preceded by v or p, the
1 is transposed without any other alteration. Thus we
have the comparatives duetvov, “better,” and eipwv,
“worse,” apparently from the lost positives duevels, “a
warrior,” and Xepews, “a workman.”
85
INFLEXION.
§ VIII.
Undeclined, Irregular, and Defective Nouns.
284 Although the laws which lead to apparent ano
malies of inflexion have been already explained, it will be
most convenient to the learner, if we follow the example of
previous grammarians, and add here a list of those nouns
which are either undeclinable, defective, or irregular.
andov, “ nightingale,” G. dnöövos, dn&ows, D. -ovº, -oſ.
So also Topyviv, elkºv, xexièav (184).
dAkt by the side of dAkſ, “with strength.”
ãAws, “threshing-floor,” G. -w, -wos, also &Atov, -ovos.
diva, “O king,” in addresses to gods, for Čvač.
didos, Čič, ćića, for &&ov, &c. from "Aléns.
dAp, “barley-meal,” secondary form āAqirov. So also
Kpf by the side of kpión, “barley.” "AAp, and kpſ were
probably dental forms like uéAl-t, “honey.”
duºpw, “both,” G. D. dupoiv.
dvºpatročov, D. Pl. dvěpatróðots and avépatóðeral. The
latter form shews, as does also the form dwópatrocío,
that the derivation is dump and trous, not dump and
droëſtops; hence, the original word was dwópatrovs
like Tpírovs, and the name is best explained by the
boast of the Dorian warrior (Hybr. ap. Ath. xv.
p. 695, F): “Tavres yovv retrtnøtes duov trporkvveºvtſ
pe deatdraw.” There is a similar irregularity in Olć
trovs, q.v.
'Avēpopéea retains the a throughout. So also some other
proper names, such as Anča, DiNoumaa. cf. 18 f, g,
119, 161.
dump, “a man,” i.e. vir, not homo (185).
'AtröAAw for 'AtroAAwwa (184).
dpyéros, -ri, instead of apyntos, dipyntt.
"Apns, “the god of war,” “Apeos, "Apel, "Apn, and "Apnv.
Also in Epic poetry 'Apnos, 'Apni. That the original
form of the nom. was "Apews appears from the compa
rative dpetov (280).
dpv6s, m. and f, “of the lamb;” dpví, ópva, āpues, ºpvd
ori, used instead of the inflexions of duvds.
nom. was dºjºv, “the male.”
£péras, “image,” n. 6péreos, (3pérn.
The true
86
INFLEXION.
yd Aa, n. (182 a.).
yéAws, m. “laughter,”-wros, -wra, and -ov, -ov. So also
£pos, “love;” ſepas, “sweat.” Compare ſipws for hipw
T-s (192).
yóvv, n. (182 a.). So also 3dpv.
yºun, f. (179).
&duap, f. (181).
£dkpvov, n., “tear;” D. Pl, Ödkpvriv from the poetic Čáxpv.
deva, (240).
&évêpov, n., “tree;” D. Pl, both &évôpos and Čávěpeow
from 3évôpos. There is also a form éévêpeov, whence
8évêpea, Čevöpéois.
beguós, m., “chain,”; Pl.-uoſ and -ud; 8(ppos, m., “seat,"
has also both forms, but the m. Pl. is more common.
3opvčé, m., “O spear-shaft-maker,” from Čopuśdos.
&pupos, m., “oak-grove;” Pl, -uot and -ud.
Gap, n., “Spring;” apos, apt, ipos, mp.
gyxexus, f, “eel,” -vos; but at and rds éyxéAets, rºw
-
éyxeXéov in the Pl.
eikov, f. (184).
épétuds, m., “oar;” Pl, épétuoſ, and épétud.
§ws, f. (171).
Zeiſs, m., “Jupiter;" G. Aids; D. Att; A. Aſa. Also
Znvds, Znvi, Znva.
sixé, m., “O madman.”
Hom.
tipa, n, acc., “help.”
€a\ms, m., GaAéw, €axi, GaAmv.
The forms 6axoſ,
€dantos, &c. are later.
6éus, f, “law,” has the genitive forms 6éutoros, 6éuitos,
6éutòos, and 0éuios.
6eouds, m., “decree;” Pl, -uot and ud.
Épíč, f, “hair,” Tpixós, òpišſ (96).
6vydtmp, f, “ daughter," duyarpás, 6vyatpi, -tépa, flºa
Tep. 6vyatépe, -Tepoiv, -Tepes, -Tépov, -Tpdori, -répas.
kéAws, m., “cable,”-w, -ov; Pl. -wes, and -ot; A. -ovº.
Kápa, n., “head,” “patós, spatí, kpāra, m.
But to
kpāra occurs in Sophocles.
kéAévôos, f, “road;” Pl. -60, and -6a.
k\ačí, k\ačert, coexist with the regular inflexions of k\dëos, “a bough:” see grixós.
KAeſs, f, “key;” A. KAeſda and k\eſv; Pl. KAéſées, kAeſtas,
and KAeſs. In old Attic we have also k\ſis, -nēds.
INFLEXION.
87
kvépas, n., “darkness;” G. -eos, -ovs; D. -ai, -g, whence
kve paſos.
Kowavés, m., “partaker;” Pl. kowaves, -as, as from koi
valv, Švváv.
“pivov, n., “lily,” “pivea, spiver.
kik\os, m., “circle;” Pl, kūkAoi and kiſkAa.
kilov, m, f, “dog,” (184).
Attra, n., old dative, “with oil.”
Axvos, m., “lamp;" Pl. AſYvot and Auxva.
adans for paq XaAm, in the phrase Utro udams.
pºdpºrus, m. f., “witness,” regular in paptupos, &c. but D.
Pl, udprvatv, and Acc. S. udprww in Simonides.
pets, m., “month,” for univ.
péAe, m., “O wretch.”
pidavv, m., “a wooden tower;” G. adovvos, &c., but D.
Pl. Mooriſvols.
aſkns, m., “a mushroom;” G. pºknºtos and uſicov.
vavs, f, “ship;” S., veals, vni, vauv; D., veolv; Pl., vnes,
vetov, vavoriv, vais (189).
vić, f, “night,” (180).
Oičitrovs, Oſóſtroëos, and -trov, -iroël, -toča, and -trovv;
W. -trov. Also G. Oiśirdèao, -ëa, -ēew ; D. -ón;
A. -3nv; W. -ëa.
ois, f, “sheep,” olós, oit, olv; oles or ois, otºv, oloriv,
oias or ois.
dwap, n., “dream,” only N. and A.
Övepos, m., “dream,” both -ov m., and -atos n.
dpvis, m. f., “bird,” SpVibos, -6, -viv and -viſa, V. Öpyi.
Pl, épvibes, &c. and also 3pwels, 3pwetov, and in the
A. dpvis. The Dorians wrote 3pwixos, 3pwixa, &c.
&gge, “eyes;” G. &rarov; D. Sagots.
ow8as, n., “floor;” G. oddeos; D. oºel.
ows, n., “ear,” ºrds, drov, datv.
Tvº, f, “house of assembly,” rvkvás, &c. later, rvvkós.
IIogetöðv; A. IIogetöð.
Tpeoffevrms, m., “ambassador;” G. Toérôews; A. Tpéo
Évv; Pl. Tpérôels; D. Tpégſłeri.
Tºpdowntov, n., “countenance;” Pl. Tpoorditata, -traorw.
Tpéxoos, -ovs, f., “pitcher;” D. Pl. rpáxovativ.
n., “fire,” tripös; Pl. Ta rvpd, toſs trupoſs, “watch
*i;
res.”
88
INFLEXION.
orms, m., “moth,” oreds; Pl. orées, oréas, oréwv.
writers, ontos, &c.
In later
orſros, m., “corn;” Pl. -to, and -ra.
a kap, (181).
ordetov, n., “a furlong,” of ortdötol, ra ardóta.
&C.
w
pr
−.
r
w
--
orraðuds, m., “standard;” Pl. -uot and -ua, “balance."
attyás Gen., and pl. otixes, from grixos, “a row.”
* * *
*
!...
44
px
-
Tav in to ºrdv, “O thou,” old form of rvvm.
Táprapos; Pl. Taprapa.
-
-
-
Tauſs, m., both regular, and also ratovi, raioves, Tatoow,
Jówp, n. (181).
víðs, m., “son,” in addition to the regular declension
has the following: G. viéos; D. vieſ; A. viéa; Du.
viée, viéow; Pl. vieſs, viétov, viériv, viéas, -eſs.
ppéap, n., “well,” ºppéatos and ºppnrós.
xeip, f, “hand,” xeipós, xepds, xeport, &c.
xovs, m., “a congius,” or, “liquid measure,” xods, Yoi,
xoºv, x6es, xdas. Also, as from xoews, xods, xod,
xoãs, &c.
G.
But Yous, m., “a heap of earth,” has only
xods; A. Yotv, &c.
4%
r
--
r
r
r
-
Xpéos, n., “debt;” also xpéos; G. Xpéws and Xpéows;
Pl. xpéa. There is no D.
I
Xpaſs, m., “skin;” G. Xpwtds, &c. Ionice xpods, Xpot,
Xpda. . We have also the phrase év Xpig for év Xpwrí.
r
«G.
-
w
& tdv.
See Tav.
.”
r
-
r
..
CHAPTER II.
CONJUGATION
OF
THE
VERB.
§ I. Differences of Voice.
285 A verB (ønua) is a word which contains a pre
dication of time, with reference to one or other of the three
primary positions: and these primary positions are ex
pressed by objective cases of the primitive pronouns. Thus,
we have &ſdo-ui, “a giving by me,” = “I give:” ciów-Ti,
“a giving by him,” = “he gives:” &ſdo-uev, “a giving by
us,” = “we give;” 8:30-vri, “a giving by them,” = “they
give:" tºo-uai, “a giving on or of me," = “I am given;"
cíðo-rat, “a giving of or on him,” = “he is given.”
286 When the inflexions represent different pronomi
nal elements, these differences are called the first, second,
and third persons of the verb; and, as in the declensions,
they appear in three numbers, singular, dual, and plural.
287 When the inflexions represent different cases of the
pronominal elements, these differences are called coices. Ac
cording to the inflexions there are only two voices, active
and passive: but the latter may express, not only that the
action refers to and terminates with the person implied in
the inflexion; but also that it proceeds from this person:
in which case, the passive verb is called middle or de
ponent.
§ II. Differences of Tense or Time.
288 But besides these differences of inflexion, there
are affections of the uninflected form, which are not less im
portant.
289 By a prefix, affix, or both, to the uninflected
form, it becomes capable of predicating differences of time
or tense. Thus, the prefix or augment é- (a residuary or
apocopized form of é-va, d-va signifying “distance,” or
“negation,” above, 114) always implies time past, or non
existent time. The affix a- (a residuary form of ora = kä sig
nifying “proximity,”) always implies future, or coming and
90
INFLEXION.
approximating time. When the form has the augment é
as well as the prefix a-, it implies that the act, spoken
of, was future and is past; or that it took place within
limits which require to be defined; it is therefore called
the aorist or indefinite tense: though, in fact, all aug
mented tenses are indefinite, as will be shewn in the Syntax.
When the root-syllable is reduplicated, or prefixed in a
weaker shape, the form predicates present or continuous
time, and, with the augment, an imperfect or continued
action in past time. When a - is affixed in addition to the
reduplication prefixed (which, of course, is still further
weakened by this elongation of the word), the form implies
perfect time, or a past action continued in itself or its
effects up to the present time. When this perfect receives
an augment, it expresses the completion of an action in
reference to some past time, and the tense is called plus
perfect or plusquam-perfectum. When we have an aug
ment alone without reduplication or affix, the form implies
transitory or momentary action completed in past time;
and from the resemblance in signification between this and
the tense which implies that an action was future and is
past, the form is called the second aorist. With regard
to this second aorist, it is to be observed that the passive
form is not distinguished by a change in the inflexions
of the person-ending, but by a pronominal insertion, ana
logous to that which discriminates the case-endings of the
noun, and which must be carefully distinguished from the
affix -ora-, which marks approximate actions in the future
tense, although it is ultimately the same element. For
6a-ow = 34-go-ui signifies, “there will be a giving by me;”
and é-8w-v = 3-3o-ui means, “there was a solitary act of
giving by me: but €-86-6m-v=é-86-[0ya-ul implies, “there
was a solitary act of giving in relation to me,” (i.e. it took
place in the line from position 2 to position 1, above, 77).
So that the pronominal element belongs to the verb-root in
the first aorist active, and to the person-ending in the
passice aorist. Of this passive aorist there are two forms,
the 0n- being occasionally softened into n. By a subse
quent extension, when the original significance of this in
sertion was no longer felt, it was arbitrarily used to make
a distinction between middle and passive, even in forms
which already exhibited differences of inflexion in the
person-endings.
INFLEXION.
91
290 The following examples will suffice to exhibit the
process of formation which has been described.
A.
Present tense (Xpóvos évertus.)
Reduplication of the root.
3-8w-pit, “I am giving.”
8t-to-uai, “I am being given.”
From this, by augment, the imperfect tense (Xpóvos
trapatarikos).
é-otow-v, “I was giving.”
é-Čičd-unv, “I was being given.
B.
Future tense (uéAAww).
Affix of o- as the softened form of k.
84-aw = 34-go-ui, “I shall give.”
ea-go-uai, “I shall give myself.”
From this, by augment, the first aorist (déparos ſpºros).
3-60-ka for €-da-aa-ul, “I gave.”
é-ów-ka-umv, “I gave myself.”
C.
Perfect tense (Tapakefuevos).
Reduplication + affix.
3é-êw-ka[-uj, “I have given.”
&é-80-pai (from Če-daika-uai), “I have given myself.”
From this, by augment, the plusquam-perfectum (Utep
avvtextkós).
6-3e34-ket-v, “I had given.”
é-čedo-unv (from éðedokd-umv), “I had given myself.”
The perfect also admits of a future of the form B, which
is then called the paulo-post futurum (duet' dAiyov uéAAww
Xpóvos). This is more common in the passive than in the
active.
It will be observed that the affix wa = ka, which
is appended to tenses B and C, sometimes appears as the
hard k-, sometimes as the soft a-, and sometimes vanishes
altogether, as in the perfect passive. This is due to the
nature of the guttural, which, as we have seen, can pass
through the sibilant to the mere aspirate, and so vanish
(above, 106).
92
INFLEXION.
These are all the regular formations. They present
themselves in pairs of simple and augmented tenses, the
former expressing definite, the latter indefinite, relations of
time.
But besides these, we have, as we have seen, the
secondary acrist (döpiatos &ettepos) and its peculiar passive
formation, which are of course limited to the expression of
indefinite time.
D.
Second aorist (doptotos éevrepos).
Augment without affix or reduplication.
3-30-v, “I gave.”
With compound person-ending
é-36-0nv, “I was given.”
The shortened form, in -mv only, does not appear when
the verb-form ends in o or e, but is common enough when
291
the root ends in a or a consonant.
It is to be noticed that
although the aorists in -6mv and -nv are alike derived from
the second aorist active, custom has given to the aorist in
-0nv the name of the first aorist passive, while that in -ny
is called the second aorist passive.
The improper, or secondary future passive, is formed
from the passive aorist, contrary to all analogy, by the
substitutions of -0mgopal for -0nv or -morouai for -nv. Thus
we have :
30-0||aouai, “I shall be given.”
§ III. Differences of Mood.
292 Besides these formations, which are devoted to
the expression of various relations of tense and coice, the
accurate syntax of the Greek language has taken into use,
for the expression of modal relations, forms of the future
and aorist which bear the same analogy to the regular
forms in -a-, that the usual genitive of the second declen
sion does to its original form ; namely, the analogy of
-to to -orio.
This new future and aorist are called the
subjunctive and optative moods, (tyk\tores wrotaktikri kal
eukarıkm), and the tenses which we have hitherto discussed
are said to belong to the indicative mood (ºykAlgis 6ptatiki).
293 By an affection of the person-endings only, which
are either omitted or made more emphatic—according to
the analogy of this vocative case of nouns—the indicative
INFLEXION.
93
mood is converted into what is called the imperatice mood
(śykAtaris irpooraktikm).
294 When the third person plural in -vt- of an indica
tive tense becomes the vehicle of a set of case-endings,
the verb is said to become an active participle (uéroxos),
as partaking of the nature of the noun and verb (above, 61).
The crude verb, similarly inflected with the suffix -lievo-,
becomes a passive participle. The aorist in -0n-v, -n-v makes
its participle in -vt. It is scarcely necessary to observe
that the augment is always omitted in the participle,
though the reduplication is retained. In addition to the
participle, the verb is capable of a nominal inflexion when
the termination réos (from TéFos), or -tês is appended
to the root in the same way as the third sing perf.
pass. Thus, from TAék-w, tré-TAek-Tai, we have the ver
bals TAek-réos and TAek-ºrds; from pixáw, "re-qíAn-rat,
the verbal pi\n-téos; from Xéo, root XeF, kéxv-tai, Xv
Tós; Tetvo, root ta-, térarai, Ta-Téos. It seems probable
that these forms are derived from the verbal in -riſe, sig
nifying the action of the verb, and corresponding in ori
gin, as these forms do in use, to the Latin supines and
gerunds. (See the Syntax for the use, and for the forms,
361, b, c.)
295 An inflexion, analogous to the passive person
endings, becomes fixed adverbially for the expression of
what is called the infinitive mood (£yk\toris drapéuqatos).
The passive form of this inserts, according to an analogy
not very easily explicable, the element which forms the
passive aorist.
296 The following may serve as exemplifications of
these processes.
Indicative Mood.
tow-ut, “I am giving.”
(co-wal, “I am being given.”
Imperative.
têo-01, “Give thou.”
(co-ro, “Be thou given.”
Conjunctice.
diè6 for Čičota-ui, “I am likely to give.”
Čiča-uai, “I am likely to be given.”
94
INFLEXION.
Optative.
31&oinv for €330ia-ul, “I was likely to give.”
3.30ſ-unv, “I was likely to be given.”
Infinitive.
3d6-val, “to give.”
£136-00a, “to be given.”’’
Participle.
3.3ows = 3166-vt-s, “giving.”
6.63-mevos, “being given.”
dows = &o-wr-s, “having given.”
30-06's = 30-06-vt-s, “having been given.”
§ IV. Different Classes of Verbs.
297 Having thus stated the general procedure in the
genesis of verbal inflexions, the next step will be to give the
practical rules for the application of these principles to the
different tenses and moods of the same verb, and to the
different kinds or forms of verbs.
298 There are two classes of verbs, discriminated
by their person-endings: A. Primary verbs in -iu; , B.
Secondary verbs in -0. And class B. is again subdivided,
according to the crude forms, into (a) verbs of which the
crude form terminates in a consonant or one of the vo
calized consonants i, u : (b) verbs of which the crude form
terminates in one of the articulation-vowels a, e, o.
299. According to the sub-varieties of the crude form,
it is customary to subdivide these classes of verbs into
conjugations (avčyia).
In class A there are four conjugations:
1 Verbs in -a-pu, as fort-n-pº, to T-d-val, fut. atri-ow.
-e-put, as T10-m-ul, T10-é-val,
3 Verbs in -o-ui, as Ötö-to-ui, 316-6-val,
2 Verbs in
-
6;forw.
— 86a w.
4 Verbs in -vv-ul, as Čeſk-vu-pu, betk-vſ-val, - Čeſ:0.
In class B. (a) there are six conjugations:
1
Labial verbs,
in
or
in
in
T,
tr-T,
ſº,
‘p,
as Tépt-w,
as Tūt-t-w,
as Aeſ?-w,
as Ypaq-w,
fut.
—
–
—
Tépyw,
rival,
Aeſºw,
ypdvo.
95
INFLEXION.
2 Guttural verbs,
in
or
in
in
3
k,
k-T,
Y,
X,
as TAék-w, fut. TAéčw,
as Tik-t-w, — Téčo,
as Aéy-w,
— Aéâw,
as Tpéx-w, – 8péâw.
Dental verbs,
in T,
aS
in 3,
as épétè-w,
dviſorw,
– petaw,
in 0,
as "reið-w,
— Tretow.
diviſt-w,
-
4 Liquid verbs,
5
in A, as a réAAw,
in u, as véu-w,
or u-v-, as Téu-v-w,
–
in v,
in p,
– kpivo,
- a trepò.
as kpiv-w,
as a "reip-w,
- a tead,
veputo,
– Teuto,
Assimilated verbs, in oro- or TT-.
From labials, as térow (Ter-) —Tévo.
From gutturals, as Tpdoo-w (Tpay-)—tpd{w.
From dentals, as épéra-w (épet-) —épéro.
In 8.
a. From gutturals, as kpd{-0 (Kpay-) —kpd{w.
or ga\tíč-w (aaXTiº-) —oraxt{yśw.
3. From dentals, as ºppºić-w (ppač-) — ppáow.
i.
6
Verbs in F, i.e. in t or v.
r
a. Simple, as tío, Aww, fut. Tiao, Avorw.
|3. Diphthong, as travo, k\etw, keVetw.
300 In all these conjugations, except B. a 4, it will be
observed that the or- of the future is directly attached to the
root, with the same changes for the labials, gutturals, and
dentals, which have been stated in the case of the nomina
tives of nouns with similar characteristics (above, 178 sqq.).
The learner must bear in mind, that all verbs in -čw, which
form their future in -ºrw, have a dental characteristic, which
is omitted before the g (above, 92), so that the penultima
is necessarily short :, comp. Tapaokevičw, fut. Tapa
akeudo-w, with Aapatrás from Aautrāč-s, and vouíčw, fut.
wouia-w, with éAtris from éAríð-s. The liquid verbs, B. a
4, soften the a- through to e (22); and generally ex
hibit it in synaeresis. With regard to the perfect, the
96
INFLEXION.
original hard k is preserved, as a general rule, in the third,
fourth, and sixth conjugations, and is represented by a mere
aspirate in the first and second (see above, 290). The
assimilated verbs apply this rule with a reference to their
original characteristics. Thus we have
with h
Tút-t-w, perf. rétvq?a= rérvºr-ha.
2 TAek-w, - TerAexa = trék\ek-ha.
{}
but
|
3
with k.
6
a reſpo
— Trétréºſól-ka,
— a trap-ka,
keVevo
—
treſów
kekéAev-ka.
The perfect passive always omits the k, and assimilates
or otherwise alters the characteristic according to the rules
of pathology.
301 In class B. (b) there are three conjugations:
1
Verbs in -a-, as
Tud-w, fut. Tuñow ; or ord-w, fut. awārw.
2
Verbs in -e-, as
3
Verbs in -o-, as
‘pi\é-w, fut. pianow ; or kaxé-w, fut. KaNéow.
&nxó-w, fut. *n\dow; or dpd-w, fut. dpdow.
302
It will be observed that the a- of the future is
preceded by a long vowel in some, and by a short vowel in
other, verbs of this class.
In the one case, the crude form
really terminates in a vowel: in the other, some consonant
has been absorbed: e.g. a dental in ortra-w, root a trafl-,
cf. ordó-wv, até-v-ºw, &c.; a F in kaAéto and dpów, cf.
kAſw, aroum, &c.
303 The classification of verbs according to the genesis,
or origination of the crude form, belongs to a different part
of the subject (below, Part IV.)
§ W. Differences in the Person-endings.
304 The general differences in the person-endings of
classes A and B refer chiefly to the primary or definite
tenses: the secondary or derivative tenses, being affected
by augments and additions of different kinds, present
corresponding modifications of the person-endings. The
following tables will show the various forms of the person
endings in the two classes of verbs, and in the two sets
of tenses:
t
97
INFLEXION.
Primary Tenses.
Class A.
305 Active, singular 1
Secondary Tenses.
-pu
•ly
ori, -6a, -6,
-s, -6a
-Ti, -ori
•ly
-"Tony
-"roy
dual
plural
Passive, singular
dual
plural
- Toy
-Tm v
-pies, -piev
-pies, -piev
-Te
-Te
-vri, -v6-, -āori
-v, -orav
-plat
-pumv
•orott
•oro
-ºratt
-ºro
-pedov
-uébov
-0.60w
-a-60 w
-orðov
-ueda
-orðnv
-pieba
-o-6e
-orðe
-wrott
•y'ro
Class B.
Active, singular 1
-o
•ly
•s
•ly
dUlal
plural
-"roy
- Tony
-Toly
-Tm v
-piev
-piev
-'re
- Te
•ou
-a
ori
-y
=to
Passive, singular
dual
plural
D. G. G.
-plat
-unv
-oat, -n, -et
-oro, -ou, -w
**ott
-"ro
-pedov
pedov
-orðov
-o-0ov
-o-60w
-ué6a
-o-0my
-us0a
-o-6e
-orðe
-viral, -arai
-vºto, -aro
7
98
INFLEXION.
§ VI.
306
Differences in the
Augment and Reduplication.
As the vowel at the end of the crude form affects
the conjugation of verbs in Class B, so a vowel, commencing
a crude form, affects the augment and reduplication in
verbs of every class. In fact, it is customary to speak of
two kinds of augments:
307 (1) The syllabic, or proper augment, which aug
ments the secondary tenses of verbs beginning with a con
sonant, by prefixing e, as in 3-Tvrtov from Türtte, and
doubling the initial g, as in Éppittov from girt w (105).
308 (2) The temporal, or quantitative augment, which
is merely an ectasis of the initial syllable, in verbs which
begin with a mutable vowel. This augment takes the
place of reduplication in the perfect of such verbs, and is
then retained through the moods. The augment in eitrov is
considered as a reduplication.
309 As a general rule, a or e is changed into n, o into
w.
Thus we have
dviſo imp. iivvov perf. ºvvka pl. p. iivſkew
éAríčo — Antićov — ſixtuka — matrikew
dutxéw
—
autxeow — aut&nka
—
aut&miketv.
In some verbs e is changed into el: such are édw, Štú",
éAſoo w, tako, trouai, pydīouai, £prw, exo.
310 The short ; and v are represented in syllabic aug
mentation by the long and v : as Keteva, ikétevaa;
v'paívo, tºpauvov.
-
311. The rule for the change of a, e, o, in syllabic
augmentation, is generally observed also when the verb
begins with the diphthongs at, av, ot: thus we have
airéal, imp. Touv.
avčdvo, imp. nº avov.
eixouai, imp. mixáunv'.
312 In some few instances, euphony forbids syllabic
augmentation; as in awaivu, oikovpéw, &c.; and in some
cases there is an apparent combination of both augments,
1 The doctrine of the old Grammarians that ev- takes no augment
is not accepted by modern scholars. See Elmsley ad Med. 191. Heracl.
305. Dindorf. ad Nub. 137. Lobeck, Phryn. p. 140.
99
INFLEXION.
as in £600vv from d6éw, Čºpov from dpaw, àow from
d'Ataka, &c.
313 In parathetic compounds of preposition and verb,
the augment stands between the preposition and the verb:
aS in
Tpos-Éqepov from Tpos-ºpépw, trap'-elyov from Trap-exto.
314 In synthetic compounds, the augment and redu
plication precede the whole compound form: as in Tekvo
Toléw, érékvoroſovv, TAnugeMéo, TetanupéAnka, dq'povéw,
ñppóvovv.
., 315 Compounds with et and 8vo- are generally con
sidered as synthetic; but they vary in regard to the aug
ment according to the letter which follows the particle: if
this is a mutable vowel, it takes the syllabic augment
thus we have evnpyérovv from evepyeréto: if it be a con
sonant, or immutable vowel, the augment precedes the
whole form, as in éðvariºxnga, nutſyovv.
316 The reduplication of the present tense is rarely
found except in verbs of Class A, though we have some such
forms, as tri-Trø, root tre+- or reo-.
317. It has been already remarked, that the reduplica
tion of the perfect gives s for , on account of the greater
weight of the form.
318 There is an occasional reduplication in Attic
Greek even in the case of verbs beginning with a vowel:
thus we have, dyw, 2 aor. Yayov; drovo, perf. dr-rikoa ;
ãº, perf. 83-w8a; dpºrta, perf. dp-tipuxa : where it will
be observed, that where the common forms have an augment,
the first syllable is lengthened; where a reduplication, the
second; and if, in this case, the lengthened syllable is ante
penultima, the penultima is necessarily short: compare
dkowo,
"HKovov,
dkH'KOa
dAeſpo,
"HAesºpov,
dAHAIqa.
Paradigms of Regular Verbs.
§ VII. Class A, or Verbs in -ni.
319 Although it is usual to consider the following
verbs as regular, and though they are inflected uniformly,
the student must be told from the first that they are
7–2
100
INFLEXION.
both irregular and defective. Thus, foºtnui and Četryvvu have
no 2 aor, act. ; and ríðmu and 8tówu have no 2 aor. passive.
Moreover, by a convention, which we also see exemplified
in ſixw, “I am come, or have been sent,” from fixa, the aor,
or eika, the perf. act. of ſnu, and in our words “stay,"
act. “stand,” passive, from the present and perfect active ich
stehe, “I stand,” ich stand, “I stood,”—the perfect of fortnut
is invariably used with a passive signification, and the verb
has no active perfect.
320
It will be observed, that all the old consonant
verbs, which still keep up this primitive mode of inflexion,
add -vu or -wn to the root, with the exception of elut, root and épi-ual, root pu-. . The v is doubled in several verbs
in a, e, o : such as orkeddvvvu, kopévvvu, otpévvvut. Also
in Tivvvu for rivvu, which is a solitary case. The affix v
may be transferred by hyperthesis (above, lll) to the root
syllable, where it becomes a kind of ectasis (above, 145).
It is liable to the changes mentioned in 101 a. Thus we
have tri-p-TAnu, Aa-Y-x4-vo, &c.
-
:
3.
-Kevy-viſ-row-Kevy-vij-rmv-Kevºy-vij-ue-vKetºy-viſ-re-get")-vij-orav
-get
[v]
é-Keöy-vu-vKetºy-vu-sy-vu
égévča&c.
{vy
ééééééé
{-org-row
é“
p-6rtilac-öboe-ºrowvi-a-rá-rmy
Šéing,”
&c.
-6T1i-36é-ºrmŠć-v ora-Mev
-r3ít-0êeo-ograv
6r1i-6b0e-ute-é-ri-be-re
vor-ra-re ć*-ata-Gav
é-61-80-re
Iv]
;-ºf-3a,
-tt-ºn
[v]
sé-ri-6m-s
é-61-60-sup,”
etting#-arm
7-arm-v
was
“I
Š-6t-ów-v#-arm-s
é-Ti-6m-v
aorist
2
the
ples,
themoods
in
and
and plural,
dual
the
in
but
particiis
and
preference.
in
used
5-60-ka
Tenses.
Indefinite
Mood.
fleÖo
""
Imperfect,
&c.
-or-rm-ord-ºrnu-or ij-ora-uev-or ij-ora-re
-or m-orav
-oºrn-ga
set
did
“I
VOICE
ACTIVE
321
Indicative
Aorist.
1
&c.
up,”
B.
6et-ſ3y-0v-v-ºrt
gti-6evri
for
Kevy-vá-āor7and
61-36-àort
tubé-dori
for
i-atāori
(v)
ſi-eorv-yra-vroi rt
ölöovoſt
or
tubelow
Čt-eiočr-yfr-alveruo-wroti-te-row
i31-80-Tov
y-vv-row
{ei}
31-30-row
7w-a-ra-row ti-de-uev
Čte-orta-Lev
8t-êo-wev
čy-v -ueTí-0e-ºre
v-or-ra-re
8t-8w-ut
ti-6m-ut
t-orrm-ut
ečy-vu-ſut º7-a-rm-ori
6t-öo-re
7Keöy-vv-re
Çreit-y6-mv-o-rotri
8t-öw-ort
t-orrm-s
Ti-6m-s
ët-öw-s
eūy-vv-s
6eôo§vy
Toºor
&c.
or ij-orets
6;-orw
86-orto
Keö800
orrij-orw
Tenses.
Definite
or ij-orovou
(v)
or ij-ore-roworth-ore-roworth-o -wev or iſ-as-re
orij-ael
Indicative
shall
“I
Present.
am setting
“I
Mood.
Future.
up,”
set
35
A.
&c.
É
“given,”
-ket-puev
tr;yoke
.”
4
&
P4
-ket-ºre
had
“I
-ket-toly
Z
z
-ke-oratly
or
Aoſ.
I
;)
wanting
3A…ish,
Aof.
i.)
had
“I
wanting
6é-60-ka
ewanting
Šél-r6oers-tfi8le4-tk-ekuevuv
g
D.
wantin
w
w
-
PlusôoÇvy6eKvy
ôoorror-
ë-öo-orav
av
é-0e-o
#1.”
gave.”
“I
é-öo-row é-06-wev
wantin
wanting
5-60-uev
g6-0e-re
é-öo-ºrg
&c.
&c.
set
been
-kets
lºve
Tenses.
Indefinite
.
used
.*)
placed,”
“I
#.
é-Bé-ºrmv
3
-ket-orarly
placed,”
:
-ket-Triv
&c.”
up,
-ket *
perfect.
VOICE.
ACTIVE
C.
Tenses.
Definite
wanting
ºrée-ortm-ka
-6eu-ka
&c.
e-ortm-kas
6e
orrorer
r
ë-orti -kā-art
(v)
§-ori-ka-tov §-ortri-ka-row§-ori-ka-ueëv-or ij-ka-re
Š-orrdia
also
ë-or m-ke-v
but
in
chiefly
pluralë-a-ta-uev -āori
the
&-orrºw
-rre
C.
er
t
t
Paulo-postFuture,
“I
Indicative
Perfect. “I
have
Mood.
C.
# placed,”
been
;iſ:
9)
joked.”
4
given&
B
+
C
set
main
re
shall
39
ret
&c
up.”
35u
i
3.
-otºrmv -ouplev
outroy
-
Çevy-vá-oupat
av
{evčd—two
Çevčá-vrov wanting
Aor.
2
Tony
-
Çevčá-Tw
-rrow
Te
-
and
{e08-ov
{vy
ôuðot-m-Tov
66-vºrwu
86-Toorav &
for
86-9,
Indefinite
Tenses.
81-607-row
ôt-öot-n-v
wanting
-?)-s
Aor.
1
-*roly -ºrtory
aré-vºrtov
6thou.”
mord-vºrtov wanting
yoke
6é-Two'av
and &
wanting
—
A2
1
or.
-cate
,
-nn
t
“give
T-Te
ony
thou,”
-Tov
Tony
armord-tworav
thou,”
-te
0é-rw)
-Tov
place
“
6e
Aor.
1
Ortra:-
&c.
ri-u(1)
o-6Teati-n-v redupli-m-s
-m-s
<&
for
6é-s,
ori-o-o-v
up
“Set
and
-n
-Te
86-64 ôó-rw
80
-oute -ote
v.
-ol's ot
&c.
i-o-Tai-mtov
I
“
form
flé-6,
orn-ord-ro
thou,”
i-o-Tat-mºrnu
&c.
i-or aí-rmv i-ar at-mºre
besettingup,”
-atai-Tov
i-orral-re i-or ai-ev
&
and
,
might
Aor.
ary
and
a
t
Mood
Opt.
Imperative
second
or
VoICE.
ACTIVE
or
B
D.
Aor.
2
.
Š3+e1v-y30-6vé-áº-rTwoagr'av Çevy-vā-vtov
-Top
getſy-v -01Kevy-vö-rwČečy-v -tov
for
-Te
and
d
ečy-vu
{vy
-ºrtory
-ºrtony
(v)
-à-ort
8t-öövtov
T1-6é-vrov
6t-öo-row
ºrí-0e-row
-to-rrow to-ºrol/
8t-öö-Tw
rt-6é-ºrw
T-Te
-
-to-s
-à-s
8t-êov for
rt-6et
6t-60-01
rí-66-61
Tenses.
Definite
-w-paev
-to-re
and
an
-6
&c.
-ī
e
80
6e81-880
ru-06
iorg-Two'av
7-or-ra-row
for i-ord-ºrw
t-orra-61
(v)
-à-ori
-m-Tov -à-piev
i-ord-vtov
–7-re
-rrow
-Te
and
Tor
or
t-orrm
reduplicated
impºſe
Present.
thou setting
“Be
up,”
secondary
Conj.or
Mood
be
may
strength “I
or
up,”
setting
form
ened
Future, (l)
A.
C.
&c.
C
r
-
Future
Tense.
(213)
artri-orwu
“Setting (209)
up,”
6e80
t-ortra-lºga
Present t-orras
Tense.
Participle.
“To
be
setting
Present
Tense.
Infinitive
Mood.
wanting
Aor.
2
form
up,”
set
&c.
“I
may
have
-7s
-n
&c.
Simple
Form,
ortij-orw
orra:-
Aorist
Conj.
Perfect.
A.
up,
&c.
A.
2)
ood.
cºlve
(213)
65-ortov
ðuj-orwu
º
C.
(212)
Kevy-vus
*-ori-ku's
re-6et-kős
8e-8w-kºs
wanting
*ś,
rt-6ets
84-800s
(210)
(211)
Simple
Form,
“I
might
set
Aor.
Optat.
Optative
Mood.
Infinitive.
up,”
&c.
(2)
“having
set
up,”
&c.
Participle.
or
B
D.
“To
up,”
set
Aorist,
Kevy-vá-val D.
or
B
wanting
A
2or.
form
&c.
-n
-ms
getſä-w
{vy
ru-0é-val
61-66-val
wanting
A
1 or.
form
05&c.
36,
&c.
66
86
6-7s
860s
Definite
Tenses.
ACTIVE
VoICE.
6e
wanting
wanting
(209)
(210)
A
2or.
6ets
1Aor.
wanting
wanting
orrijoras
6el-val
A
1 or.
wanting
;
Indefinite
Tenses.
orm-oral
A
2or.
wanting
ortri-oratus 6et-n-v
orrij-orals
orrº-oral
&c.
crºro.
wanting
(211)
(209)
or.
Aor.
800s
§ ečas
1A
wanting
wat
800
at
Keiº
1 or.
A
2
wanting
lA
2or.
form
3ot-m-v
Keö8-aut
Keöğaus
-ms
Keöğal
&c.
•m
Öo{vy
£
i
3.
Čevyv-ws
orrm-oras
Participles.
w
T16-eſs
torT-ows
Čečas
813-ows
r
*
3-ows
6-ets
w
Çevyw-ival
orr-norai
tor -atlyot
éval
ri0-
313-6val
Infinitive.
w
6-eſval
w
3-ovva,
r
-
Češča.
MooDs.
DIFFERENT
Čevyvious
ort-noraipu
T-aunv
to
Optative.
T10-einv
Čečaipu
813-oinv
z
3-oinv
6-einv
r
THE
IN
TENSES
Conjunctive.
Čevyvöw
T-morto
o
Čečw
f
ºrið-6
T-00
to
8-6
e
CoMPARISON
322
OF
ImpIendriactaitviev.e
}
ºr-nº
}
Yv-vu.
Čew
Če 1st
É(evča
Aorist,
{e0éov
orr-morov
t-nora Present,
a
Aorist,
1st
Tí6-era
zºne.
Present,
Jºyv-v0.
Present,
for-a0.
3-6s
&c.
€6-opew,
Aorist,
2d
6-6s
&c.
30-eptev,
Aorist,
2d
&c.
30mka,
Aorist,
1st
Imperfect,
€rí0-nv
Imperfect,
T-mw
to
a
&c.
€8wka,
Aorist,
1st
Imperfect,
}
38-wpu €818-tov
Present,
8(3-001
Imperfect,
€evyv-vv
C.
Future.
myself,”
&c.
am
setting
up
“I
being
am
set
or,
up,”
“
Present.
Paulo
post
Fut.
Same
meaning
ºorrríčoo.
as
B
+
C
“I
set
have
up
myself,
&c.”
Perfect.
“I
set
shall
up
myself,
&c.”
B.
A.
&c.
LC
A.
323
PASSIVE
AND
MIDDLE
WorCE.
-ueba.
-ord-uebov
&c.
-rraz.
&c.
-oretort
-v'rau
&c.
-kºra..
-čat
&c.
C.
é-Kevy-ual
|
&-or-rrížoua, wanting
wanting
|
&
•&c.
c.
-oratt
6-ort&-mat
Té-6et-ual
3é-80-tal
&c.
-Oret
Plus-perf.
.
-
-uebov
C.
r
-ordueflow
To
-ora.
-Into
-0.6e
-o-0mv
-ueba.
-ordov
-To
-oro
-uebov
B
being
set
&c.
up,”
Imperfect.
6t-60-uai “I
Kety-vi-uai
i-atti-unv
was
orii-oo-uat
6:-go-ual
64-go-luat Keöğoual
-orator-n
C.
Kuy
|
-o-Bow
-orbov
-o-be
C.
6eÖo
Taºor
Tí-6e-ual
-orator-g
&c.
-Tart
i-orra-Mat
Definite
Tenses.
i
Ao.
1.
“"...”
&
&
&c.
Indefinite
Tenses.
é-ri-6é-unv
4-6-66-unv
č-Kevy-vi-un
&c
-To
-"ro
-To
-rro
&c.
C.
é-te-bet-umv
ć-8e-66-mmu
&-Ketºy-unv
had
“I
e-o-Ta-Ramu
set
-čo
up
myself,”
-Oro
-oro
-
&-arm-ord-umv
Š-6m-kg-unv
Š-60-kd-umv
č-Kevčd-unv
C.
c
C
.
-orto
C.
C.
0e{vy
ôorator
#
j
Imperative
v
-o-000
-orbe
-orthwarav
-orbov
and
60
6eortrar-
-
r
r
-
D,
B.
+
thiv
in
(1)
§.
{vy-ſi-oroual
é-orrd-6m-v
orth-oral
1Aor.
-ºrto
&c.
-ºrto
orj-61
Ds.
&c.
orrā-6m-ri
D1.
2Aor.
-orda:00
&c.
Imperative
-ms
-n
-mºrov
-mºrnu
-muev
—mºre
-morav
3-arm-v
my
in
(2)
&c.
orist.
A
2ortra:-
Indicative
continued.
VoICEs.
MIDDLE
AND
PAssive
ſevX-0ſ-couai
60-6ſ-couat
re-0ſ-couat
ora-6-f-arouat
Passive,
Future
B,
D.
{ečy-vu-go
{vy
6t-êo-oro
rt-0e-oro
t-orta-oro
A.
-vá-a-600
Ötöov
and
ºrt-60u
t-orro
Present.
61-36-orthw
rt-6é-a-6a,
i-arta-o.8w &c.
&c.
-orbov
.
B
+
De
wanting
wanting
&c.
[C.
ºf
Tenses.
Definite
i
66-gbo
&c.
6éo-60
36-go)
(for
800
...)
Tenses.
Indefinite
é-geºx-0mu
ć-86-6m-v
é-ré-0m-v
&c.
&c.
<
-Tao
-ºrto
•ºrto
86-6m-ru
Keöx-0m-rt
ru
ré0m
3-gū-y-mu
wanting
wanting
&c.
C.
{vy
ôo6e-
Part.
Infinitive
Mood.
-6
-fi
-ms
form,
Simple
&c.
C.
(1)
Infinitive
Mood.
-
ſevčáuevos
8worójuevos
6moróuevos
orrmorówevos
B.
Part
evyvváuevos
3186plewos
T16éuevos
iorduevos
Kečeordat
6ajorea.0at
Bigeo-bat
Bau
orrijorea
Fut.
B.
bat
wanting
3e3óa
Tefleiabat
(garagbat)
Perf.
C.
Yörjareorbat
Kev
forea-bat
300
rethjoreorbat
orraðiforsorbal
Fut.
B,
D1+
Kuymoreo-Bal
or
Keöyvva-6au
&#8oorbal
ºrí6eorbat
Torrao,0at
Pres.
A.
8-0-wat
6-à-Hai
wanting
orrø
(2)
&c.
Conjunctive.
ët-öſö-Mat.
Kevyvv-ºuat
ri-Biomat
i-ort-à-Mat
strengthor
form.
-ntal
-öð-ºral
-8-mºral
T-ſitat
-or
Present
306eKvy
(1)
uºy
orra:Reduplicated
Optative
Mood.
poº
vºy-m-
dečvuévos
Tefleuévos
C.
x0m}*::::::
300morówevosgeu
rebnoréuevos
grabnoróuevos
+B
Di
-to-ºral
-n-Tau
-fi
Conj.
Aor.
-öð
-6-fi
-a-r-ţi
form.
ened
-17
coºve
Tenses.
Definite
VoICEs.
MIDDLE
AND
PASSIVE
2&c.
*r
---------
Kvyets
.........
ords
D.
evăduevos
.........
B.
atmoduevos
---------
{ei}{aorbal
B.
wanting
Bai
orrijorao
D1.
ſevzbival
was
600m
retival
orratºnvas
ºvyºval
.........
Ds.
orrºval
&c.
&c.
Z.
-oio
-et-o
form,
Simple
-ms
§6-of-unv
wanting
6-et-umv
rat-mu
or
º
P4
-olo
-old
to
•e
-or
-oiro
-eiro
-ouTo
-ai-To
Çevyvv-of-u
31-30t-unv
ri-6-et-unv
i-ar-at-unv
Opt.
Present
{vy
806earraReduplicated
D1.
•rebets
orra.0ets
§
800ets
5
-oiro
-el-ro
Opt.
Aor.
-n
Tenses.
Indefinite
#
;
#
Čevyv-ſuevos
or mora-pºevos
iort-duevos
Tuf -Éuevos
Participles.
Čevčduevos
3.8-duevos
6-éuevos
3-duevos
r
p
or ijo-a -6al
Čečyv-vo.6a, Čečagflat
for-aorbal
Infinitive.
8to-oorðal
Tí6-earða
CoMPARISON
324
MooDs.
DIFFERENT
THE
IN
TENSEs
of
8-60.0al
6-éa.0a,
r
Çevyv otunv
orno-aſpinv
iort-atunv
Tub-etunv
Optative.
Čevčaiunv
813-oiumv
3-oiumv
0-effinv
otno-touai
Čevyviſwua Çevºwual
Conjunctive
T-topia,
to
ru6-topia,
0-6pal
818-toua.
3-dual
Tí0-earo
0-00
(0-Égo)
8tö-ooro
300
(3-doo)
Imperative.
Čečyv-voo
tort-aoro
orrmoral
Čeča.
r
er
Mfor
&
P.
Pres.
r-apai
.
éarno-dunv
Aorist,
1st
iat-dunv
Imperfect,
Indicative.
M.
&
P.
Pres.
8:8-opal
M.
&
P.
Pres.
Tſ6-epal
60-€unv
M.,
Aorist
2d
€rið-éunv
Imperfect,
€3.3-dunv
Imperfect,
}Imperfect,&evyv-ſunv 1stAorist,€(evč-dunv
sºyv-upai
Present,
€3-dunv
Aorist,
2d
110
INFLEXION.
325 As these primitive verbs in -ui express those
simple actions which are of most frequent occurrence, and as
the Greek, like every other copious language, has naturally
more than one word to express every-day actions, we find in
the verbs in -ui, as in other verbs of common occurrence, a
sort of co-partnership between two roots;–one furnishes
the aorist, another supplies the future, and so on. The
most important example of this is the substantive verb
eluſ, “I am,” which is not only predicative of existence,
but also furnishes the copula to connect any predicate
with its subject. While therefore we may reserve to the
list at the end the consideration of other defective verbs,
the substantive verb, which is necessary to the full in
flexion of the barytones, must be given at length in this
place.
326 The substantive verb in Greek, Latin, and San
scrit, makes up its tenses from two roots ea-, pv-; es-, fu-3
as-, bhu-. In an elementary Grammar we may confine
our attention to the Greek and Latin languages.
327 In Greek, the root do - furnishes only the present,
imperfect, and future. The root pu- with the adjunct -ia,
supplies the aorist and perfect. The same is the case in
Latin, except that the present of the root fu + ia is used,
with a different perfect, as the passive of facio, and as a
synonym for Yiyvouai.
This will be made more clear by
the following comparison.
Root co-, es
Pr.
eluſ = €or-pu?
'sum = esum.
Imp. iv or ëa = g-eorap.
eram = €sam.
Fut. Boroual
67°O
= €S-680.
Part. Šušv = €óvt-c = &oevts
Se??S
= esents.
Root, bu- = ‘pa, F-, fu =faf=fac.
pº = p&Fa-º, “I bring to light,” fac-io (do.)
Aor. §q}vora
With adjunct, ta.
puto, (Et. M. p. 254, 16)
Aor, ºpuv = q.vta-, (used with elaſ)
Perf. Tequka (do.)
= requtaka
féci = fef.
fefect.
o = fuio.
A. ſº
fui or
fuci = fufui (used with sum).
factus sum (used with fio),
111
INFLEXION.
Part. faitus = fuitus,
putós, a pulſ-dºrs
facundus = fuiscundus,
qºs = pºvts
farmina = fuimina, and
and requkùs = repviPárs J in old Italian futus = filius.
The absorption of in Équv, is shewn by the quantity of
v in the plural: Comp. Equuev with éðetkväuev, and Éotnuev
Part. vić's =
a
-
with éðeuev.
328 The following are the tenses of the verb eiuſ.
INDICATIVE.
1.
Present.
-
Singular.
• , a
*
eipit,
et,
els I.
Plural.
3.
w
3.
w
*
eorgev,
eorºrt
&uul D. Šoral D. I. Švri D.
w
*
\
eate, etori
eiuèv
Sãort I. D.
eiués D.
ëvrt
êovºrt
éuév P.
}
Dual.
•
v
3
eortov,
2.
Future.
Singular.
grouai, Éam or -ei, total
ëoroup at D. §oreau,
v
e O'Tov
Plural.
-dueffa, -eo.6e, -ovºrai
égeral I.
Dual.
-öueðov, -eq 0ov, -eq 00v.
3.
Imperfect.
Singular.
nv, firòa, fiv
•
Plural.
nuev,
ſite,
*
and n,
and fi
éa,
éas,
ënv I.
fia,
#s rec. A. is D.
Émaba,
flew E.
morav
*
morre
ëare,
éoav I.
&ororav P.
jues
ëov E.
jmu E.
ëorkov,
jumv A.
&orke E. I.
eluev
elples
|D.
etaro E.
Dual.
firov,
#rnv
motov,
nortmu
Instead of the Perfect and Aorist we may use the Perf.
Yéyova, and Aor. 2. čyevöunv of yivouai, or the Perf. Trépuka,
Aor. £pvy of puté.
112
INFLEXION.
IMPERATIVE.
Singular.
to 0,
Plural.
Gore, Čaroorav or garw
garw
Gao E. firw A.
éðvºrww I.
Dual.
éotov,
a tww.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Singular.
*
Plural.
*
s
*
to,
ms
!
&w,
ens,
ey
*
wpiev,
*
mté,
wori
elm E.
Dual.
*
*
nºrov,
m Tov
êntov, K.T. A. I.
OPTATIVE.
1. Present.
-
Sing.
Plural.
env,
eins,
ein
elnuev,
sout,
Šots,
éot I.
rar. eluev, eite,
einre,
elev
elmoav.
Dual.
eintov,
eifrnv
etºrmv A.
2.
Future.
égoípnv, -oto, -otto
-ué6a, -offe, -viro
Dual.
-ué0ov, -o-0ov, -aēnv.
INFINITIVE.
Future.
Gaea'6ai.
Present.
elva
ëueval,
#lev I.
guieval, uſuev P.
sipuev,
w
jueval, D. P.
juev,
PARTICIPLE.
1.
Present.
tºv,
oùora,
3v K. T.A.
étov,
éovora,
éðv I.
2.
éoéuevos,
Future.
-n,
-ov.
éolora
eVora
W. D.
éaorora
329 To this we may add, by way of contrast, the
inflexions of elut, “I am going," i.e. “I shall go,” (root -),
113
INFLEXION.
which is used as the regular future of Épxopal, although
jew is used as the imperfect of that verb.
INDICATIVE.
For the other tenses see Épxopal, in the list of Defec
tive Verbs.
Future.
1.
Singular.
elui
el,
Plural.
tre,
fuev,
elor
Taori
els I.
Dual.
trov.
trov,
Imperfect.
2.
Singular.
nets,
*
new,
-r
Plural.
-
w
sy
--
ñetuev,
met
hia, and fia,
tov,
tes,
ifies,
*I lov,
jette, #eorav
*
*
nuev,
ate
to av P.
te
iſie I.
ºE
nowev,
tja'av
tie E.
-
Dual.
ñeirov,
ntov,
jeſtnu
frnv
25
tºrmv E.
IMPERATIVE.
utov,
Singular.
Plural.
tre,
tro
10,
el in comp.
fºrwarav
or lovºrov
trov A.
Dual.
-
itov,
-
tºrtov.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Tw,
ins,
in, k. T. A.
OPTATIVE.
tout,
tois,
tol, K. T. A.
INFINITIVE.
iéval
ioimv A.
tuevat. tuev E.
PARTICIPLE.
lov,
lovora,
ióv.
eiorouai and elo d'umu are Homeric.
§ VIII. Class B. (a) or Barytone Verbs.
330 It is usual to select, as a type of this conjugation,
the verb riºt-t-w, “I strike,” root rvt-, with strength
ening affix T-. As the intention of the Paradigm is to
shew not only the actual but also the analogically possible
forms of the verb, it is necessary to select some verb,
D. G. G.
114
INFLEXION.
which has a strengthening affix in the present tense,
otherwise the old form D., or the 2nd Aorist, cannot be
appropriately exhibited. The selection of Türro is due
to the fact that it stands first in the strengthened forms
of labial verbs (above, 299); and the student must be
cautioned against supposing that it is so complete and
regular a verb as is here assumed. Some of its pecu
liarities are mentioned below, where it appears in the list
of Irregular and Defective Verbs.
331
I.
ACTIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE Mood.
(A, 1) Present, I strike.
Sing. rwºrro
Plur. Túrtouev
Túrrets
Túrret
TvTrTerré
Tvrtoval
JDual.
Twittetov
Tvrtetov
(B, 1) Future, I shall strike.
Sing. rivo
Tüvels
&c.
&c.
TúWre
&c.
(C, 1) Perfect, I have struck.
Sing. rérvºpé
Tétvq is
Térvºpe
Plur. Tetúqāuev
Teriſpáre
retiºpaqi
Dual.
retupdrov
Tervºirov.
(A, 2) Imperfect, I was striking.
Sing. Tvrtov
3rvºrres
3rvarre
Plur.
Dual.
&rºtrouev
ériſtºre're
étiſtre+ov
érvºrrow
érvarrétnv.
(B, 2) Aorist I., I struck.
Sing.
ruvá
Plur. Štúwrapev
Dual.
&rvyās
étivate
érüvatov
ërvºze
&rvyāv
Gruvatnv.
(C, 2) Pluperfect, I had struck.
eterſpew
éteriſqets
€teriſpel
Plur. retiºpeipew
érerūq,etre
éreºriſpetray
Sing.
and -eorav,
érerūqeirov
(D) Aorist II., I struck.
Dual.
Sing.
3rvºrov
&c.
3rvires
&c.
éretvipetrmy.
3rvire
&c.
115
INFLEXION.
II.
IMPERATIVE MooD.
(A)
Sing.
rurºre
Túrrere
Present.
Tvrtéto
Tvrtétwo av or turrávrov
Plur.
Dual. Túrrerov
Tvrtérov.
(B) Aorist I.
Sing.
Plowr.
Dual.
rºzov
Túvate
Tºbarov
Tvydºra,
tvN'd two av or rv\rdvrov
Tvydrov.
(C) Perfect.
Tervgºro
Sing. Tétupe
&c.
C.
(D) Aorist II.
Sing.
Tvrérw
&c.
Túre
&c.
III.
SUBJUNCTIVE Mood.
(A)
Sing.
Túrro
Plur.
Dual.
Tvrtwpuev
Present.
tºrtus
Túrrn
Tvrtmre
Turroo,
Tvrtm'rov
Tvrtm'rov.
w
w
(B) Aorist I.
Sing.
Sing.
Túvo
Tú
.."
Teriſqo
(C) Perfect.
terſpns
&c.
Sing.
C.
(D) Aorist II.
Túrms
Túro
&c.
&c.
IV.
Plur.
Dual.
Túrroup,
Túrrouev
º
Teriſpn
&c.
Túrn
&c.
OPTATIVE Mood.
(A)
Sing.
w
&
Present.
Túrrots
Túrtoire
Túrtoirov
Túrrot
Túrrowev
Tutºrofºrmv.
(B, 1) Future.
Sing.
túvolut
TÜVrous
Túvo,
&c.
&c.
&c.
8–2
116
Sing.
INFLEXION.
(B, 2) Aorist I.
Tºlzais (or -elas)
Túvaipu
Plur. Túvaipev
rival (or -ele)
Túvatev (or -elev)
Tuvaire
Túvairov
Dual.
Sing. Teriſqopu
rvºratºrmv.
(C) Perfect.
Teriſpots
Teriºpol.
&c.
&c.
&c.
(D) Aorist II.
Sing.
Tvroul
Tºrous
&c.
&c.
INFINITIVE MooD.
V.
Present, tiſtrew
(A)
ºrwarol
&c.
(C) Perfect, retvq?éval.
(D)
(B) Future, rivetv.
(B, 2) Aor. I. rival.
Aor. II. Tvreſv.
VI.
PARTICIPLEs.
(A) Present.
Sing.
N. W. Túrrow
Tūtrov.
Túrrovara
(See above, 211).
(B, 1) Future.
Sing. N. W. Túvov
távovara
tºlzov.
(C) Perfect.
rerupvić
retupds.
Sing. N. W. retvq?0s
(See above, 213).
(B, 2) Aorist I.
Sing. N. V. rivas
rivăgă
răvăv.
(See above, 209).
(D) Aorist II.
Sing.
N. V. Tvrºv
332
Tvrov.
MIDDLE VOICE.
I.
Sing.
Tvrovo a
INDICATIVE MooD.
(A, 1) Present, I strike myself.
Türtoua,
Túrrel (or -n)
Plur. Tvrtdueða
Dual. Tvrtóueflow
Túrreorge
Túrrea.0ov
ruarrera,
rwºrroviral
Túrrea flow.
117
INFLEXION.
(B, 1) Future, I shall strike myself.
Sing.
Túvouai
Tüve (or -n)
Tüveral
&c.
&c.
&c.
(C, 1) Perfect.
Sing.
Térvira
rérvards
&c.
&c.
Térvire
&c.
(A, 2) Imperfect, I was striking myself.
ériſtºrov
érºtrºrero
Sing. étuttgunv
Plur
Dual
érvartdueffa
érürroueflow
érwarrea'6e
ériſtºrov.ro
érwºrreorbov
érvºr:réorènv
(B, 2) Aorist I., I struck myself.
érºzto
étivaro
Sing. érvºlºdunu
Plur. ervydueða
ériºlzao.6e
érüvavro
Dual. érvvaueðov
ériºlzao-0ov
érvydoºny.
(C, 2) Pluperfect.
Sing.
éterſtretv
&c.
éreºrwareis
&c.
(D) Aorist II., I struck myself.
ériſarov
Sing. ervºrówny
&c.
&c.
II.
éretware,
&c.
érºtrero
&c.
IMPERATIVE MooD.
(A) Present.
Sing.
Plur.
Dual.
riſtºrov
rurreorge
rwarrea.000
Tvrtéo-00
Tvrtéo-0worav and rurtéo-0ww
Tvrtéo-0ww.
(B) Aorist I.
Túval
Plur. Túvaorde
Dual. TúWraordov
Sing.
Tuvao,000
rvydoróworav and rvydoróww
ºrvyda:0aov.
(C) Perfect.
Sing.
Térvire
Tervºréto
&c.
&c.
(D) Aorist II.
Sing.
Tvrov
&c.
Tvréorów
-
&c.
118
INFLEXION.
III.
Sing.
SUBJUNCTIVE MooD.
(A) Present.
rürry
rvirruſual
Plur. Tvrtaſueffa
Dual. rvirtuțuedov
Sing.
riſtra-no-6e
Türtmorðov
(B) Aorist I.
Túvºn
rivapai
&c.
Sing.
&c.
&c.
Sing. Tūroua,
Túrrmotov.
TúVºntal
Terſtry
&c.
&c.
(D) Aorist II.
Túrn
ºrum'n'ral
&c.
&c.
IV.
&c.
OPTATIVE MOOD.
(A)
Sing.
Turruviral
&c.
(C) Perfect.
retirns
reruto
ºrwarrntal
Tvrtoſumu
Present.
Túrroio
Túrrotarfle
Túrroto-flow
Plur. Tvrtofueða
Dual. ruttotpedov
ºrwarroiro
ºrwarrowro
Tvrtotor0my.
(B. 1), Future.
Sing.
Tvvotunv
Túvoto
&c.
Túvoito
&c.
&c.
(C) Perfect.
-
Sing. Terutopi
retútrous
&c.
Tervurot
&c.
&c.
(B, 2) Aorist I.
Túvato
Sing. rvilratunv
Plur. Tuvaſueða
Dual. Twylratuetov
rºlzata fle
rūyatorðov
(D) Aorist II.
Sing. Tvrotunv
Túroto
&c.
&c.
W.
rºlzairo
rivalvro
rv\rator0my.
Túroito
&c.
INFINITIVE MooD.
(A) Present, Tºrreaffai.
}
(B,
Future, rived flat.
(B, 2) Aorist I., TÜVraordai,
(D) Aorist II., ruréabat.
(C) Perf., retvréval.
119
INFLEXION.
VI.
Tvrtóuevos -n
Present
(A)
PARTICIPLE.
-ov.
G. -ov-ov. -ns
TvQ, duevos -n -ov. as Present.
(B, 1) Future
Tervºrds -via -os. – Perf. Act.
(C) Perf.
(B, 2) Aor. I. rv\,duevos -n -ov. — Present.
(D) Aor. II. Tvrduevos -n -ov. — Present.
PASSIVE VOICE.
333
I.
(A, 1)
INDICATIVE MooD.
Present, like the Present Middle.
(C, 1) Perfect, I have been struck.
rérvºrral
Térvyat
Tétuppal
retuppévot clai
Térvºp6e
Plur. Tetſuge6a
Tétvq?0ov
Tétvq?0ov.
Dual. rerſuaedov
Sing.
Middle.
like the Imperfect
(A, 2) Imperfect,
p
p
(C, 2) Pluperfect, I had been struck.
érérvarro
érétvNzo
Sing. ēteriſuunv
Tervupévol moav
érérvg6e
Plur. Šteriſupeda
éterſpônv.
éréruq,00w
Dual. Gretºupedov
(D, 1) Aorist I., I was struck.
ériq,0m
ériſq6ns
&rſqónv
Sing.
ériq,0norav
ériq,0nte
Plur. &rſq)0nuev
érvºpóñrmy.
étiq,0ntov
Dual.
Sing.
(D, 2) Aorist II., I was struck.
ériºtn
ériºrns
ēturnu
&c.
&c.
&c.
(D, 1 +B) Future I., I shall be struck.
tvq?6;forera
Tuq,0hael (or -n)
Sing. Twſpómorouai
C.
Sing.
&c.
&c.
(D, 2 +B) Future II., I shall be struck.
Tvrmore rat
Tvrmore (or -n)
Turngopal
&c.
&c.
&c.
120
INFLEXION.
(C, 1 +B) Paulo post Future.
retive (or -n)
Sing. retivouai
II.
(A)
retiveral
&c.
&c.
&c.
IMPERATIVE MooD.
Present, like the Present Middle.
(C) Perfect.
retrºpów
Tetſºpóworav and retúq6av
rérvºpóww.
Sing. Térvºlvo
Plur. Térvpfle
Dual. Tétvq?0ov
(D, 1) Aorist I.
rvp6;fºrw
rvſpöhrw.orav and Tuq6évrov
Tūq,0nte
rvſp0iittov.
Tūq,0n'rov
(D, 2) Aorist II.
Sing. Tºpónri
Plur.
Dual.
Tvrđto
Sing. rwºrn 6.
&c.
&c.
SUBJUNCTIVE Mood.
III.
(A) Present, like the Present Middle.
(C) Perfect.
—ſ,
—is
&
Sing. retuppévos
Plur.
Tervupévo
duev
Dual. retupuévo
—ntov,
tvq?0;
&c.
&c.
(D, 2) Aorist II.
Tvrºs
rurº
&c.
rvirio
&c.
—was
(D, 1) Aorist I.
Tvø05s
Sing. Tuq6%
Sing.
—nte
firov
&c.
&c.
V.
OPTATIVE MooD.
Sing.
(A) Present, like the Present Middle.
Tervupévos
env
—eins
—ein
Plur.
retuppévo
Dual.
Teruppévo
etnuev
—ente
eluev
—eire
entov
—eing'av
—elev
—einrny.
121
INFLEXION.
(D, 1) Aorist I.
Sing.
Tvø6einv
Plur.
Twºpfleſnuev
Tuq6ein
(rupbeing av)
rv40eins
Tvø6eſn'te
—eſueu
elev
efºre
rv40euirnv.
tvq?0einrov
Dual.
(D, 2) Aorist II.
Sing.
Tvreinv
&c.
Tvreſn's
Tvrein
&c.
&c.
(D, 1 +B) Future I.
Sing. TvQ,0nooſunv
rvq6;foroio
&c.
Sing.
&c.
(D, 2+B) Future II.
Tvrnorotunv
Tvrđoroto
&c.
Sing.
Tuq6;foroiro
&c.
rurmorouro
&c.
&c
(C + B) Paulo post Future.
Tervurotunv
Tetºvolo
&c.
reruvotto
&c.
W.
&c.
INFINITIVE MooD.
(A) Present, like Present Middle.
(C) Perfect, rerſq6ai.
(D, 1) A. I. rvºpónval.
(D, 2)
A. II. Tvºrnwal.
(D, 1 + B) Future I., rvſp0 forea.0ai.
(D, 2 +B) Future II., rvarríoſegbai.
(C+B) Paulo post Future, rerſverðal.
VI.
(A)
(C)
PARTICIPLEs.
Present, like the Present Middle.
Perfect,
Aorist I.,
Tervupévos
-n
(D, 1)
Tvø0els
-eſora -év
&c.
(D, 2)
Aorist II.,
Tvre's
-eſora -év
&c.
Tv40norduevos -n
(D, 2 + B) Future II.,
Tvrnorduevos -n
(C+B) Paulo post Fut, retuvouevos -n
(D, 1 +B) Future I.,
-ov &c.
-ov &c.
-ov
&c.
-ov &c.
For the declension of rvºpffels and rurels, see above, 210.
i
i
i
-
-
w
w
-
2.
Aor.
2.
Fut.
Aor.
1.
Fut.
*
Pluperf.
Fut.
p.
P.
ſPerf.
2.
UAor.
Pluperf.
Fut.
1.
Aor.
Perf.
Imperf.
Pluperf.
2.
UAor.
ſPres.
Perf.
1.
Aor.
4
Fut.
Imperf.
ſPres.
I§ X.
r
-
r
-
r
-
r
r
toTumr
deest
First
Conjugation.
334
r
r
-
Tervºpéval
eval
Terrun
ruméa.0a,
r
river6a,
rºlzaorbal
6at
ºrwarreo
Tvreºv
r
rivew
Túval
TuTrTetly
Infin.
r
w
-
r
r
;
-
-
-
Tervuprevos
Tvropaevos
Teruºmſtøg
w
Tvy,
duevos
Tuvaluevos
Tumrºrouevos
TuTrøy
v
-
retuq,ws
Túvov
Túvas
TuTrTtory
Particip.
Turmoroſumv
Turreunv
6a,
or
rum-rfore
val
Turn
Tvre's
Turnorduevos
duevos
terſvlrea:0a,
reruv',
Teruvlroſumv
Tuq6mvat Tuq6es
rvpbeinv
rvºp6;forea-6a,
Tuq6norduevos
Tuq6moroſumu
env
TervupévosTeriſq6a,
rurotunv
returoups
rv\ratumv
Tvºroſumv
Tvrtoiumv
Tvºroupw
Teriſpout
Túvou
Tuvaipu
Tvrtoupu
Optat.
&
Tervupévos
Tvrwpal
TerruTrø
rºlzwual
deest
r
r
Tvrtwaat
Turto
Túva,
retique
deest
TuTrTto
Subjunct.
deest
deest
Teriivkopal
riſq6nri
Tuq66
deest
Tuq6-forouai
deest
ériq,0nv
etetuppumu
Téruvo
TuTrou
6,
rwºrn
érürnv
Tvrmoroua.deest
r
º
r
Tetuppau
etvtropºny
TuTrety
erre
ºrérvire
r
r
r
TuTrrºrou
TuTre
ervºr:topºny
Tra.
Teru
r*
f
-
ºrvºrtonal
-
r
Tétvq?e
rºlzov
deest
TuTrre
Imperat.
Túvouai deest
érvºlzapiny Túval
r
•
-
éretupetv
€TvTrov
ºr
rºlzw
#Tvya
rétvq?a
€7-v7rrow
TuTrTrø
Indicat.
Verbs.
Barytone
of
Conjugations
Different
the
in
Tenses
Cognate
View
General
;
§
TAex0norduevos
tre+Aełóuevos
TAékov
"retraakºs
TAexfleis
w
TAakes
TAakov
Particip.
w
w
Tetêexéval
wretMakéval
TAéčerbalTAéčarda
TAékeorða
TAéewtraffai
TrAéketv
TrAwkmoropuevos
TAaköpuevos Tetraeyuévos
TAešćuevosTAeśduevos
TAékópºevos
TerAexºs
TAéčovTAé;as
TAakéorðal
TAéx6;foreròal TAakriorea.0at
tre+Aéeorðat
tre+Aéx0al
TAex0mvat TAakrival
TrAakeſv
Infin.
f
TreatXeypuévos
einv
z
s/
Conjugation.
Second
335
tre+tAéxopu
TAdkopu
TAéopuTAéčaipu
TrAékoupil
TAešotunv TAeśaſunv
TAekotunv
TAex0norotunv
TAakmoroſumu
Tetàešotunv
"retradkout
TAéx6einv
TAakotunv
TAakeſnv
Optat.
r
TerAeypévos
&
Tetračxw
TAé:(a)
Subjunct.
TAéko
deest
TAdkopal
TAéâwpalTretadzw
TAékwual
TAakto
TAdkw
deest
deest ex06
TA deest
deest
TAéx0nri
trétàexe
TAéčov
Imperat. TAéke
Trétaešo
éat Trétry'ake
TAdke TAékov
deest
deest
deest
TAdknö.
TAakoo
r
deest
deest
TAexpiroua.
TAakrioropal
TAé
étreqrkotketv
éretxexeiv
€7rMekov
Indicat.
TrAékoo
€7t)\otkov
Tétèexa
TAéºw§TAeša
éºrèeköpunv TAéopaléràe:dunv*Trém
Aaka #2
f
Trétaeyuaiétre+AéYunvtre+Aéopal
étxàxönv étradicnv
f
2
r
f
r
sy
étrāakópºnw
f
*
#
r
3.
f
#21
sf
Pluperf.
Imperf.
Pres.
ſ
TrAékopiau
Aor.Perf.
*
Fut. 1.
i
2.
UAor.
Imperf.
Pres.
ſ
Pluperf.
Perf.
2.
Aor.
Aor.
Fut. 1.
i
Fut.
p.
P.
Pluperf.
Perf.
ſ
2. UFut.
Aor.Fut.
1.
1. Aor.
2.
;
§
f
w
r
artónoréuevos
-
w
Tretortov Tretoras
Particip. are:00w
Tretorðnaðuevos
wrif duevos
Treto,00s
Tretreuktos
66/1évos
wereto
metreuopievos
Tretoropuevos Tretorguevos
reiðduevos
Tru60w
Tretor06's
Tru6els
-
f
f
tretorðforea-6al
tremefor6eorðal
Tretoraoréal wretro,0éval
wort
Treike
Tre
0ai
treateſo
triðéorðat
reforeo.6a,
Tref leo-0a,
Tru6;forea.0a,
Trevorónval
r
Infin.
Tru6myat
wreſorew reſoral
Treſflew
r
Tru6eſv
Tretreuoruévos
env
Tremeto-0otunv
retreſkopu
Conjugation.
Third
336
tretflotunv
Tretoroupil Tretoratus
are:00pm
tríðopu
Optat.
Trevorónorotunv
wribnorotunv
retrotbolpu
Trevoroupinv Tretoratunv
triboſumu
retorðeinv
-
Tru6eſnv
a
-
o
retrelopévos
&
treforwaal
Treiðapal
Subjunct.
Tríðwpal
retrołów
Tretreſkw
deest Tretorto
deest
deest
Teto-66
r
(600
Tre
deest miów, deest
Trí00
areforón'ri
Tréteike
Imperat.
Trétotôe
TreTorov
Treſöe
Trémetoo
Tréſoral
wreſtov
deest
deest
deest ríðnºr, deest
deest
triboº
tríðe
z
r
Tremelodrígopal
unv
wreſöopalétreiðdunv reſorouaiéretord
Trémouða
étretreſketv
Tréteika
§tre,6ov
Tretorto
Indicat.
émíðnv
y
r
*
a
w
ar,6riorowa,
éweſorónv
f
-
are:00
3/
9.
*
w
Pluperf.
Imperf.
Pres.
ſ
Tretorðmoroua,
Tréteiopaléreºretorunv
étriðdunv
*
z
griðov
Tretoro.
e
étremotòew
1. Perf.
Fut. Aor.
i
2.
UAor.
Imperf.
Pres.
ſ
1. Perf.
Fut. Aor.
i
-:
Pluperf.
Aor.
|
2.
P.
Fut.
p.
Pluperf.
Perf.
ſ
1. Fut.
Aor.
Aor. U
F2.
ut.
1. 2.
-
f
i
tºoQJu
K-1
trapônorduevos
a
opewos
ortrapno
ortrepovywevos a
respapevos
otrepôuevos
ortrapduevos éatrap évos
earapkos
w
•
Particip.
oteiptov ortreptova
reſpas
map6es a
a
rapes
f
tropos
ea
traptov
a
w
w
trapkeval
eo
ormeſpearða
•
w
r
rapônioreo
a
6am
greſpagflat
a
t
apônvas
ortepeſo.6a, ea
tropeva, ortrapérôa. éortrapſal
Trotprioreobal
or
orqrapmMott
>
r
repeſv gºreſpat
a
ortreipew
tapeſv
a
>
r
f
Infin.
3.
p
z
éatrap évos
einv
éo-trapkopu
orreſpoups
Conjugation.
Fourth
337
orrepoſulgreſpaipu
otrapopu
respaſumu
ortreupoiumv ra
trapotunv
a
epołunva
éoºrdpoiu
otrapôngoſumv a
trapmo tpnv
trap6einv a
a
trapeſnv
w
Optat.
p
w
trappevos
ea
otreptopal
éoºrdpkw
Subjunct.
orreſpo
ordpwpal
popua.
otre
9
º
r
"reſpo
a
éoºrdpw
ortrapw
deest
grapó
deest
grap66deest
º
Imperat.
orreſpovFortrapke
orreſpe
orreſpov
ornapov égºraporo gºrdp0nt a
trapmö,
greſpaifortope
tape
a
deest
deest
deest
w
éatreſpounv éo
Teipäunv
*trapov
ča orreſpoua, a
trepov.ua
trapkaéoºrdpkew
pa ea
eatre
pov
eatre
Indicat.
greſpo
*čatapéunv
occ
eorºro
deest
tropew
go
deest
rapônia
a
oual
or aprioropa
toécºrdpumvtrapônv
trappal
éa
éoºrdpnv
grepw
+x #2
º
w
Pluperf.
Imperf.
Pres.
ſ
1. Perf.
Fut. Aor.
-
i
Pres.
Aor. ſ
U
2.
Imperf.
Perf.
|
1.=
Aor.
Fut.q}#4
Pluperf.
Aor.
|
2.
Pluperf.
Perf.
ſ
1. Fut.
Aor.
1. Aor.
2. UFut.
2.
i
P.
#4
Kekeaeworoua.
Fut.
p.
É3.Imperf.
ékexevdunv
3
Pluperf.
Meſkew
Škeke
Imperf.
ŠkéAevov
Tpdorow
TAékw.
like
pass.
this
of
see
verb,
particular
91.
above,
PŠkeke
g|env
luperf.
Mévorumv
339
Conjugation.
Sixth
338
Conjugation.
Fifth
§
conjugation
this
of
verbs
secondary
no
have
For
tenses.
pior.
orbefore
n
athe
lThe
and
perf.
A*
|1.
or.
0nv
Čkexeſo
kexeſorónri
6einv
66
kexevo
keyevo.6mvat
6eſs
kexevo
Fut.
kexeva.0iforo
l.
keyevodnorot
deest
kexevörigeoff
deest
flnorduevos
kexeva
-
F#
kexevaopal
)keXevoroſuww
ut.
kexev6;forea
duevos
kexeva
flat
deest
deest
Aor.
Čkexevadiumv
1.
kéAévaal
kexevaraſunu
kexei'atoua.
ke^evoraorbal
kexevorduevos
Perf.
&kkekéAevapai
Nevapiévos
kekéAévoro
eke
Aeſotai
keke
Aevaſtévos
Neva'uévos
Kexeſoual
Pkexevduevos
ſ:
keyewea
res.
flat
keyeſwua
kexeſov
kexevotumv
tr!
2keke
Perf.
kekéAevka
keke
Nevkéval
kekéAevke
Newkout
Aevkais
Kw
kekexei
F#/keyeſorous
ut.
vow
kea
keyeſorew
deest
keyeworww
Aor.
3)
ČkéAevora
1.
ké\evorov
kexeſorw
keaevorai
kexeiſgaupu
keyeſoras
Pres.
kexeſe
kéAeve
kexeiſou
kexeiew
keyevo
kexeſov
Indicat.
Imperat.
Conjunct.
Optat.
Particip.
Infin.
These
verbs
assimilated
according
conjugated
are
original
their
to
characteristic
Türto,
like
régow
i.e.
INFLEXION.
127
§ X. Class B. (b) or Circumflexed Verbs.
340 The verbs ripºdw, “to honour,” from runſ; pºw,
“to love,” from p(\os; and Xpworów, “to gild,” from Xpwards,
are thus inflected.
ACTIVE VOICE.
34]
INDICATIVE.
Singular.
deis, -ás
éets, -eſs
Geis, -oſs
Present. 1 rudo, -á,
2 pixás, -6
3 Xpwordw,-6
r
-ael,
r
-º
-eń,
-e,
-oet,
-ol
-
Plural.
r
1 tudo, -6
2 pixáo,
3 Xpwardo, -ow
-de, -á
º jºr
-ée,
-de, -ow
-
-aou, -to
r
-
-éov, -ov, *-oſt
r
-
-oov, -ov
Dual.
1 ripºde, -ă
2 pixáe, -eſ,)-Tov
-Toly
3 xpvade, -ov
Singular.
Imperf. 1 &rſuaov, -ov
-aes,
2 €q (Neov,
-as
-ovv
-ees,
-ets
3 expiſo'oov, -ovv
-oes,
-ovs
-
Plural.
1 &ripido, -6
ºr.
-
-ae, -ă
-se, -e,
-aov, -ww
-oé, -ov
—oov, -ouv
/
2 epi\éo,
3 expwardo, -ow
-
-eov, -ovv
Dual.
1 ripºde,
2 €quxée,
-
-
-
-
-ă
-ei Y-tov
-
-Tm v
3 expuage, -ow
IMPERATIVE.
Singular.
1 Tipſae,
2 ºptAée,
-w
-et
-aft,
-d
-ee, -ei,
r
3 xpúa'oe, -ov
-oe, -ov
}~
128
INFLEXION.
Plural.
f
f
-
1 ripade,
-ó.
r
-
2 pixás,
r
r
-eſ }-re
3 Xpwoºde, -ov
f
-a ov, -tov
-ae,
-az
w
r
r
-eč, -et two av, and -ečv, -ouv}-Tov
-oé, -ow
-odv, -ouv
Dual.
1 ripºde,
2
9tate,
-ă
-aé, -d
-ei, -et,
—eſ X-Tov
3 Xpwarde, -ov
-'7" to ty
-oe, -ov
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Singular.
l
2
Tugo, -6
-ºns, -ás
-án, -á
pixed,
-ºps, -ns
-ºp, -n
-ons, -ois
-on,
-to
3 xpvadw, to
-o
Plural.
1
ripaw,
-o
2 pixeo, -6}-ſiev,
3 xpvado, -6
-án, -á
-én, -n}-re
-ón, -6
-aw, -6
-éw, -6}-ol
do, -º
Dual.
w
1 Tugn, -á
2 baén, -n X-Tov
3
-*rov
Xpvoon, -w
OPTATIVE.
1
rudolpi, -6
w
2
-
pixeopºl, -of)-pu
3 xpvoróopu, -of
Singular.
-áois, -6s
r
—eous,
-
-ots
–6ois, -oſs
-do, -º
-
-éo, -oi
-do, -oſ.
Plural.
1 rudo, -º
2 plaéot, -of)-pev
3 xpvo do, -of
l
Tugo,
2
pix@ot,
-of -tov
3
Xpvoºdot,
-of
-dol,
-to,
-á,
-oi -a e
-ool,
Dual.
-ol
-do, -º
-Éol, -vi}-ev
-oot, -of
-p
-tnv
r
The more common forms are tip ºnv, -ns, -n ; pi\oinv, -ms,
-n ; Xpwooinv, -ms, -n. K. T. A.
129
INFLEXION.
INFINITIVE.
1 riºdieiv, -áv
2 pixee.tv, -eiv
3 Xpwordew, -oov
PARTICIPLE.
f
-
Tudova'a, -óra
ºptAéw 17, —tov ºpi\éova'a, -ovora
3 xpvrówv, -ów xpvadovoa, -ovora
1 Tindow,
Tudov, -ów
pºéov, -oov
Xpwadov, -oov
-tov
2
342
MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE.
Singular.
-án, -á
-de, -ă
2 pixeo, -ov -pa -én, -fi, or -eſ -ée, -e?)-tal
3 xpworóo, -ow
-ón, -of
-6e, -ow
Present. 1 rudo,
-6
Plural.
1 Tuad, -º
-de, -á
-dov, -ów
2 pixed, , -ot, Y-peta -ée, -ei Y-affe -éov, -ouv}-tal
3 xpwood, -ow
-če, -ov
-óov, -ovv
Dual.
l
Tuad, -ºpetov
-ie, -à
2 pixed, -oſſuedov
-ée, -eſ }-ordov
3 xpvood, -oſſuedov
-óe, -ow
Singular.
-dov, -6
2 epi\ed, -ot, Y-linv -éov, -ov
Imperf. 1 &timad,
-6 r
•
•
w
£vovoroá,
Xpwooo, -ot,
-čov.2 -ou
-0.00,
-de, -ă
-ée, -et }-to
*
~
-óe.2 -ow
Plural.
1 &riuatº, -º
-de, -ă
-dov, ov
2 equaed, -ou -ueba -ée, -eſ -ade -éov, ovv Y-to
3 expvood, -ow
-6e, -ov
-dov, oov
w
*
w
~
-
Dual.
1 Tuad, -a;
<dixed.*
,
-ow}-uebov
'ſ-
3 expwood, -ow
D. G. G.
-ás,
-à
-ée,
> -e? -adow
*
-0.6nv
m
-oe, -ov
9
130
INFLEXION.
IMPERATIVE.
Singular.
1 rudov, -6
2 pi\éov, -ov
3 xpvadov, -ov
-aé, -á
-eč, -et
-aé, -ow
}*-
Plural.
1
tipide,
-ă
-aé, -á
2
dixée,2
-eſ X-rðe
-éé, -et X-róworav,2 and -adov
>
w
-
3 Xpwarde, -ow
w
-oe, -ov
Dual.
1
2
ripºde, -ă
-aé, -á
pixás, -eſ Y-a-0ov -éé, -et Y-a-0av
>
f
-
3 xpvade, -ow
-oe, -ov
SUBJUNCTIVE.
:
Singular.
tip dw, -6
-án, -á
quxéo, -6 7-uai -eń, -fi
xpvorów,
-on,
-
-
•00
-ol
-
-din, -á
-em, -n -tal
*
-on, • to
Plural.
tipatº, -º
-án, -á
-dov, -ów
jº. -én, -n Y-affe
quaed,
xpvootº, -º
-éov, -tov -ta,
-ówv, -ów
-ón, -6
Dual.
:
Tipad, -t;
-án, -á
quxe4, -d Y-pedov -én, -n -affov
xpwood, -º
-ón, -6
-o-0ov
OPTATIVE.
Singular.
p
p
Tuao, -e,
:
quxeot,
r
-
-go, -ºl
-of -pin v -éot, -of f-o
-601, -of
Xpwooot, -of
-
-
-go, -ºl
-éot, -oi
ſº
-do, -of
Plural.
:
Tudot, -º
-do, -º
-goiv, -ºv
pi\eot, -of -peda -éot, -of -0.0e -éow, -oiv -t
xpvoºdot, -of
-óot, -of
-dow, -oiv
131
INFLEXION.
Dual.
r
I
Tuao,
r
f
-º
-
-go, -º
2 pixeot, -of -pedov
3 Xpwooot, -of
-éo, -of -orbov
-orffnv
-óo, -of
INFINITIVE.
1 rude, -ão flat. 2 pixee, -eſo-flat. 3 Xpvade, oùo flat
PARTICIPLE.
Tuaguevos, -a,
2 pixeduévos, -off
3 Xpwooduévos, -ow
l
343
}~
-ao, -to
-éo, -ov
}~
-oo, -ov
-ad, -a,
-ed, -ow
-od, -ow
}~
In some verbs, even the Attic writers retain
the older form of contracting ae into m (above, 124). That
these are old verbs appears, in part at least, from the
simple and necessary meanings conveyed by them. They
are (mv, “to live;" xpng flat, “to use;” rewmv, “to hunger;”
&nv, “to thirst;” kvnv, “to scrape;” apnv, “to stroke;”
Nºnv, “to rub;” from Čaw, xpdouai, rewdw, &c.
§ XI.
Anomalous Verbs.
344 Although the verbs which have been given in
the Paradigms are called regular, the student has already
seen that they are all liable to defects and anomalies; and
even twºrro, the most complete specimen of a regular con
jugation, will be found again in the list of irregular verbs.
In fact, the more common the occurrence of a verb is, the
the more liable it is to casual affections; and the study of
the irregular verbs is, in fact, a study of these verbs which
the learner will meet with most frequently in the course of
his reading.
345 The irregularities with which the student has to
make himself acquainted, may be classed under two differ
ent heads. (I.) Anomalies of signification. (II.) Anoma
lies of form.
§ XII. (I.) Anomalies of Signification.
346 Anomalies of signification arise from some appa
rent contradiction between the form of the person-endings
and the action expressed. Properly speaking, the person
endings which are equivalent to an instrumental case, such
9–2
132
INFLEXION.
as -u, -uev, &c., are approriated to the active voice; while
those which are equivalent to a locative case are appro
priated to the middle or passive voice. Thus, 8tów-u.
means, “a giving by me;” 8too-uev, “a giving by us;"
but eſcopal, “a giving on or of me;" &ied-ué0a, “a giving
on.or of us.” (285). But we have seen that an insertion
of the elements bia, or ia, supersedes this distinction of the
person-endings, as affecting the voice of a verb (289).
And with regard to the future, we shall see that the form
in -uai, from B. (290), or what is commonly called the
first future middle, may be used in particular verbs as a
passive, and in other verbs as an active future.
347 The following are examples of the passive use of
the so-called future middle :
ăp{ouai, “I shall be ruled.”
dAwarouai, “I shall be taken.”
dwidoropat, “I shall be grieved.”
&n Majoropat, “I shall be shown.”
edia ouai, “I shall be suffered.”
kaAoûual, for kaxéropat, “I shall be called.”
(also kekārigopal, but KAndrígonal is of rare occurrence in
Attic Greek).
Aéouai, “I shall be spoken of.”
puriforouai, a rvynaouai, “I shall be hated.”
oveidtowpat, “I shall be reproached.”
Tiprioropat, “I shall be honoured.”
348 Sometimes the paulo-post future is used without
any distinction of meaning for the passive: thus we have
Begaria opal, kek\riorouai, neuvria ouai, in the same sense as
£3Anórioropai, KAnóñorouai, and pivnaðngopal.
349 The 2aorist middle occasionally occurs in a passive
sense: for example, in some compounds of axéréal, as kara
oxéadai, ovoxóuevos. But it may be laid down that the
1 aorist middle is always confined to its reflexive significa
tion. Thus, though Tpd{erdal might be passive, ºrpääagdal
must be middle.
350 . Some active verbs always employ the middle
form of the future in an active signification. The following
is a list of these verbs:
#8w, “I sing,” gouai.
133
INFLEXION.
dkowo, “I hear,” droſa ouai.
duapravo, “I err,” duapriorouai.
dravtdo, “I go to meet, -trigouai.
droxaúw, “I enjoy,” -aſſoopal.
(3ačić, “I walk,” Bačioſual.
£3atva, “I go,” £ngouai.
/360, “I live,” -tjarouai.
Bodo, “I cry out,” -rigouai.
*exas, “I laugh,” generally Yeadoogal, but also
yeXárw.
ympdgkw, “I grow old,” ympärouai.
ywyvºorka, “I come to know,” Yvºgouai.
ºpºw, “I grunt,” Ypºona, but also ºpwéo.
3apógvw, “I slumber.” ëapfligouai.
31&pdorko, “I run away,” &pdaouai.
écèio, “I eat,” &copal and payouai.
6avudſto, “I wonder,” -ágouai.
6éw, “I run,” beſgouai.
(npäw, “I hunt,” -ágouai.
Buſiase, “I am dying." flavovnal.
kduvø, “I am weary,” kaptopual.
kixávo, “I overtake,” kixrigouai.
KXàw, “I weep,” KAaſaouai.
KAétro, “I steal,” KAévouai.
Aayyávo, “I obtain by lot,” Añéouai.
Aapſ3dvo, “I receive,” Amvouai.
pav6dvo, “I learn,” piaffrioropai.
oluéſ”, “I bewail,”, oluºčouai.
5uvvul, “I swear,” duojuai.
traayw, “I suffer," "retarouai.
Tríva, “I drink,” triouai.
Trírro, “I fall,” regioJuai.
TAéw, “I sail,” TAeſorouai and -govua,
goſpéo, “I gulp down,” -rigouai.
oriyaw, “I remain silent,” oriymorouai.
orwardø, “I hold my peace,” -norouai.
a korrw, “I mock,” orkavouai.
grovčáčw, “I am busy,” -dorouai.
Tvyxdvo, “I hit the mark, Teiſſouai.
Tpéxw, “I run,” 6péčouai, and Čpaptovuai.
Toºw, “I nibble,” Tpºopal.
q evyw, “I flee,” petſäouai and -Éoguai.
134
INFLEXION.
q6dvo, “I am first,” pèriorouai.
Xaiva, or xdorko, “I yawn," Xavoupai.
xwpéw, “I go,” xwpriorouai : , but the active form
also occurs in the compounds, as in trporxophow.
Thucyd. II. 80.
351 The following employ both forms:
dpiračw, “I seize,” -árouai and -dow.
Štúkw, “I pursue,” -ºopa, and -uśw.
étravéa, “I praise,” -éaouai, but also -éorw: likewise
trapatvéow. Soph. OEd. Col., 1181.
“I live,” (forouai and (forw.
tyyāva, “I touch,” 0:#opal and 0#w.
koxdºw, “I chastise,” koxdorouai, KoMouai, and
.
koxdaw, kox6.
kwkwo, “I utter wailings," -Jaouai and -worw.
Adokw, “I sound,” Aakria ouat and -norto.
vavotoxéw, “I navigate,”-rigouai and -īga.
Trvéw, “I breathe, or blow,” rveworw and rveworouai,
-oroupai.
trotéo, “I long for,” -égoua, and -éow.
ríkrw, “I bring forth,” réouai and réâw.
qpovrić w, “I cogitate,” -torouai and -íaw.
352 There is a by no means inconsiderable number of
active verbs which use their second perfect in a passive sig
nification.
dyvvut,
Such are
“I
break,”
perf.
avoiyw, “I open,”
&AAvut, “I destroy,”
Trryvvut, “I fix,”
“I tear,”
Trfºw, “I melt,”
firiyºvu,
s
Gaya, “I am broken.”
dvépya, “I stand open."
&\to\a, “I am undone.”
trétnya, “I stick fast.”
Eppaya, “I am burst open."
ºrérnka, “I am melted.”
qatvw, “I show,”
Tréqſnva, “I appear.”
There is no direct evidence to shew whether this anomaly
springs from the absorption of the affix ta, or from the
cause suggested above, in the case of £arnka (319). Such
phrases as éxei Kaxtos, when the Romans said bene se habet,
may indicate the possibility of a change of usage without a
change of form, and the peculiar case of #kw, “I am
come,” used as the perfect of ipxonal, but obviously
derived, like ſka (comp. nuépa, inépa), from fixa the aor,
INFLEXION.
135
or more probably from eſka, the perfect of ſnut, “I send,”
and subsequently furnished with passive inflexions in
irvéopal, iróunv, &c., shows that there was a good deal of
caprice in these changes of application. In fact, as the
perfect indicates the state consequent upon an action, its
passive application in certain verbs springs rather from a
habit of mind common to all nations than from any pecu
liarity in the Greek language. In almost all the cases, in
which we find this transition in Greek, we find something
similar in English. Compare, for example, the double use
of éAaúva, with the English, the clouds drive; and #xw from
tnut, with the intransitive, I have shot across the river;
TérevXa, “I am here at this moment,” with such phrases
as, I have just made the mouth of the river, and the in
transitive ºxw with our auxiliary, I have gone, walked, &c.
Conversely, but for the same reason, some neuter verbs
become active: thus, dvépxopal, lit. “I go up,” means,
“I recount” (Eurip. Hippol. 200. Pind. O. viii. 54).
353 It is hardly correct to speak of such usages as
olòa, “I know,” from Fíð, “to see;” &éðopka, “I see,” from
8épkw, “I try to get sight of;” kékºrnual, “I possess,” from
kriouai, “I acquire,” &c. &c. as anomalies; for they spring
from the primary signification of the perfect tense.
354 Deponent middle verbs sometimes use a perfect of
the passive form, with both an active and passive signi
fication; the following are examples: eipyaouai, “I have
done,” and “I have been done,” from épydćouai, “I do;"
the pass. tense is particularly emphatic in the phrase as én'
&#epyaquévois, “when things are throughly done and can
not be undone:” kektnuévos means both “possessing” and
“possest;” and even katakéxpntal, which governs the
dative, is used in a passive sense. Isocr. Panegyr. 74. So
also with regard to the passive aorists of such verbs:
éktričnv= éktno-dumv, eipydoºnva eipyardunv, &c. There are
even irregularities in the use of the present tense: thus,
divoſueva is passive in Plat. Phaed. 69. Perhaps the greatest
difficulty which can arise from these anomalies of signi
fication, is the employment of a middle form, which is
strictly discriminated by common usage from the active, in
a merely deponent or active sense. For example, élèdarkw
signifies, “I teach,” and Čičdorkouai, “I have my son taught,”
136
INFLExION.
i. e. Čičarko č, ćrépov; but yet we find &ºdèagbai used as
a mere active. Pind. O. vii.1, 59. Simon. Fr. 54. Aristoph.
Nub. 781; and conversely, the active used as a middle.
§ XIII. (II.) Anomalies of Form.
355 Anomalies of form, or irregularities in the in
flexions of verbs through their moods and tenses, arise either
from the practice of making up the different tenses of
verbs by forms derived from different but synonymous roots,
as in the case of eiuſ (above, 327): or from the use of some
strengthening affix in the present tense, which is neglected
in the other tenses: such affixes are -6-, -ak-, -v-, -v-, -un-,
-vu-, -a-, -t-. The explanation of this formation belongs
to the next part of the Grammar (below, 366). But it
belongs to this part of the subject to remark that the
affixes -0- and -ork- are used to form tenses within the
domain of a regular verb. Thus we have seen (above, 291),
that the former is used regularly to make the passive
aorist, and the latter is employed by the Ionian writers to
construct a set of iterative tenses from the imperfect and
aorist tenses of the indicative mood. Thus, imperf. KAaſ
eakov, “I continually bewailed,” of a continuous act, con
tinually repeated; aor. Ad/3sqkov, “I kept taking,” of a
single act continually repeated. As the augment is always
omitted, these tenses may be compared with the optative
mood, to one usage of which they fully correspond.
§ XIV. List of Defectice and Irregular Verbs.
356 Roots are distinguished by capitals; poetical
words by an asterisk.
"Ayauai", “I admire,” dydorouai, mydorffnv and jºyagduny,
'Ayeſpo, “I collect,” another form of €yeſpo, with aor.
part. dypduevos.
"Ay-vu-ul, “I break,” root FAT (cf. fify-vu-ut) fut. dºw, aor.
*aša, éaynv, 2 perf. Baya with pass, signification.
Ayw, “I lead,” 2 aor. ii)ayov, perf. ńxa and Gynoxa.
Apéw, “I take," aipiao, 1 aor, pass, ripéðnv, 2 aor, act.
(from root 'EA-) elaov. In the middle, aipoºnal signifies
“I choose," i.e. take for myself. Distinguish this from
aipw, “I raise,” for deipo, l aor. mid. ripdumv.
INFLEXION.
137
Ala-64-vouai, “I perceive,” fut. aloffrioropa, 2 aor. iiotá
11179.
'Akaxić,”, “Ihumble or afflict,” from 'AX-aor. Kaxov,
fut. drakrioto, l aor. nkaxnora.
'AK-, “I point,” draxuévos" pointed.
'Akoúw, “I hear,” fut, droſaoual, l aor. nkovora, perf. act.
dikrikoa, perf. pass. hºovauai.
'AA3ri-akw, “I nourish,” from AAAE-, AAA-, fut. dA
3riorw.
'AAéºw”, “I ward off," fut. dAešijaw, and dAéopal, l aor.
mid. dAéčarðal, from AAEK-,AAK-, probably strengthened
by 6-, comp. aščw.
'AAéopat”, “I avoid,” also dàeſouai, l aor. Aevdunv, inf.
dAéaabai and dAeſagtai.
aivo”.
Another form in Homer is dAe
‘AA-ſaxopal, “I am taken,” fut. dAdorouai, 2 aor. Atov,
or éâ'Aww, “I was taken,” infin. dAdval, part. dAows, perf.
édawka, Awka, from ‘AAO-, comp. duffa-take.
. .
"AAAouai, “I leap,” fut. dAoûual, l aor. Aduny, 3Aaobai.
Hence in Homer, dago, dAto, äAuevos, for Aago, #Aato,
dAduevos.
'Auapºr-dvo, “I err,” fut, duapriorouai, perf mudpraka,
pass. iiidpºrnual, (as if there were also a form ‘AMAPTE-),
2 aor. Huaprov, (in Homer, juſ?potov); the fut. duapriorw
is Ionic.
'Auſ?Aſakw, “I make an abortion,” fut. GuðAdorw, &c. 2
aor. huſ?Aww.
'AvaA-to-kw, divāAdw, “I take up and consume,” fut ava
Award, aor. dudawaa, perf act. dvdAwka, perf. pass. dvdAw
pal, l aor. pass. dwax40nv. Comp. dAtakouai, which contains
the same root, although the quantity of the first syllable
differs.
Obs. As the second a in this verb is already long, it
receives no augment in the old Attic writers, though divria
#. appears to have been said in the language of common
ife.
'Avēdvo, “I please,” from FAA- with double nasal, im
perf. Hvěavov, eavčavov, and énvèavov", 2 aor. Éadov, perf.
gača, fut. dériorw.
'Avotyw, and divoſyvvut, “I open,” fut, divoſéw, l aor, dué
pêa, perfact, duéexa, perf. pass, dvépyua, 2d perf dvépya;
less frequently ºvoiča, &c.
138
INFLEXION.
• 'Avdiya, dwayéw, “I order,” imperf. &voyov, fut. divºw,
1 aor. jvoča, a secondary verb from an old perf dvaya",
with a present meaning, pluperf rivaiyev, Ionic ivºyea,
imperat. divox0, and āvoye.
So Teyuivo, yeyovée, “I speak aloud,” from the old perf.
yéytova", fixto from eika, &c.
'Arex0ávouai, “I am hated,” fut. direxórioropal, perf.
drixſºnial, 2 aor. Gºrnyfláunv.
'Atroſpas”, “having separated,” and droupduevos”, “being
deprived,” in a passive sense, l aor, part. from OYP-5-AYP
=FAP-, which is also found in Čt-aup-torkouai, “I derive
advantage from,” fut. T-avp-rigopal, aor. Érnupov. Comp,
eup-to-kw.
We have also from the same root the imperf. drnºpov",
aor. darmupa", part. dirnipas, 1 aor. mid. dirnvpdpnv.
also
l
'Apérkw, from 'AP-, “I please,” fut. dipérw, aor. iſpera,
aor, pass. ripérônv.
From the same root in the sense, “I annex” or “adapt,"
(fut. Öpow,) l aor. mpora*, perf. pass. dpipeuai, l aor, pass.
#pônv, 2d perf. hpnpa, Ion. #papa, Dor. &papa, mostly in
trans. “to fit, to be fast,” 2 aor. ºpapov. Homer has the
participle dpåpuſa. From dipnpa came dpapw and dpap
toºka).
Also in the sense, “I render favourable,” fut. dpéow”,
dpérouai, a Or. hpeara, mid. dpéoraorbat.
Aüğdvo, déâw”, at{w, “I increase,” fut. awāńow, l aor.
nºnga, perf. p.
miſènual, aor, pass. nVämönv.
Ax0ouai, “I am angry,” fut. dyffégopal and dxflectri
oropal, l aor. ix0éo.6nv.
B.
Batva, “I go,” from BA-, with affix v, and metathesis,
fut. (3riorouai, perf. 8éſłnka, pl. Béſłauev, 6égate, fleſłóg,
conj. (3e36, inf. Beflával, part. Beſłºs, -óra, 2 aor. £3my,
imperat. (370, in compounds (3d, as kata/3a : intrans. ; fut.
£3moro, l aor. §§nora, transit. The Ionic conjunctive is £ia,
In Homer we find £3etouai, “I shall go.” From the fut.
£3moroual comes an Epic imperf. §3mordunv.
From the same root we have 3/3dw, Briui, (343nut.
Some compounds have a perfect and aorist passive; as,
Tapaſ}aflets.
dAAw, “I cast,” fut. Baxó, and in the Attic poets some
“tº
139
INFLEXION.
times Bax\fra, 2 aor. £3axov, 2 aor. m. Baxdumv, perf.
(3é|3Anka, &c. Epic forms are, 3 dual 2 aor. act. 3Afrnv,
inf. (3Anuéval, &c., as from BIBAHMI.
Bíðpworke, BOP-, BPO-, 3ptºpſ, “I eat,” (fut. (3pdoo
uai,) perf. 8éºpwka, part. Begpuis, pass. 3é£poua, paulo
p. fut. Begpºo opal, l aor. 3pajónv, 1 fut. 3podiorouai, 2
aor. 3pov. Another form, fleſ?pºw, occurs in Homer.
Budw, “I live,” fut. Budorouai, l aor. 3/3twora, 2 aor. £3tov,
as from Biwut, Bíobi, Bigny, Biêval, Biots. Bidueota, in
Homer, “we shall live.”
BAao'rdvo, “I bud,” from 3Adorra, fut. BAaorriſow, 2
aor. £3Aaorrow, perf. Beft}Adorºrnica, and éſadornka.
Bookw, “I feed,” fut. Boorknow.
Boſwopal, “I am desirous,” fut. BovXiaopai, perf. pass.
Beſłowanual, l aor. £30waríðnv, riſ8ov\riðnv, poetic perf. m.
£8égovXa, as in wrpoſłé/3ovAa*.
T.
Tauéw, “I marry',” from TAM- or ‘AM-, “together,”
Attic fut. yauð, mid. Yapıoğual, l aor. £ynua (in the New
Testament, eydunga), perf. yeydunka; l aor. Yapriónv is
found in late writers.
Teyaſvuo, see 'Avºyo.
Tnpd-gkw, “I grow old,” tenses supplied from ynpäw.
The Attics, for ympäral, said ympával, ynpds, as if from
yńpmui.
Tyvº-orkw, Attic, yivajorka in writers not Attic, “I know,”
from TNO-, fut. Yvºrouai, perf. §yvuka, perf. pass. Byvoo
pal, l aor. pass éyvaig.6mv. As from TITNOMI, 2 aor.
#yvov, imperat. Yv60, opt. Yvotny (Attic Yvºnv), plur. Yvoſ
gev, Yvoiev, conj. Yvº, infin. Yvºval, part. Yvows.
Tivouai or commonly Tºyvouai, “I come into being,” root
TA- with nasal affix vi-, fut. Yevſo opal, perf mid. Yéyova,
perf. pass. Yeyévnual, 2 aor. Yevdunv, l aor. Yelvdunv, “I
begat,” or “brought forth.”
The older form yetvouat occurs in Ionic or Doric poets.
Also without the nasal affix (above, 106), perf. Yéyaa,
plural Yéyaſlev, yeydare, yeydāori, infin. Yeydval, yeyduev,
part. Yeyaws, Attic yeyds.
-
* Active, to marry a wife (urorem ducere); middle, to marry a hus
band (nubere).
140
1NFLEXION.
Two other presents formed from the perfects are Yeylike,
yeydo.
Toda and Todopal, “I bewail,” 2 aor. Yoov.
A.
AA-, “I teach,” 2 aor. 33aov, 2. aor. pass. §§any, opt.
Saeinv, conj. 8a0, inf. Canval, part. Caeſs, fut. 8aria oual, perf.
3e3dinka, céðaa, “I have learned,” part. Öečads, “having
learned,” perf. p. 3e3dnual.
Hence, 1st, causative, Čičd-orkw, “I teach,” 8tédºw and
316doknow, 3e3(8axa ; 2d, ºfte (in a future sense), “I shall
find;” 3d, 3e3dw; 4th, Čečdnut.
~
AA-, “I burn,” data, perf. &éèna, 2 aor. mid. conj.
Cam'rat.
Hence, 3rios, “a ravager", §niów, “I lay waste.”
AAI-, “I divide,” perf. pass. 3 pers. plur. Ionic, Čečaſ
arat, with derivative forms, as from a dental verb, l aor.
mid. Čoaga dumv, perf. pass. (in Homer), 3éèarrat; hence
&aivvut, “I give to eat,” fut. Šatorw, l aor. £atora, aor, part.
pass. 3ala fleſs, and earéouai, l aor. Öatéaorbat.
Adkva, “I bite,” fut. &ričouai, perf. 6éonxa, perf. p. 8éºn
Yual, l aor. &nx0mv, 2 aor. £6akov.
Aduvnu, bandw”, “I subdue,” fut. 8apº", perf. 8&unka,
p. pass. &éðumual, plup. §§eópºriumv, 3d pers. pl. in Homer
£eouijato, 2 aor, pass. 8dunu, part. 8aſſets. Another form,
3audów, is regular. Comp. &#10, which probably contains
the same root.
Aaptaiva, “I sleep,” fut. Šapflirouai, 2 aor. §§apôov, in
the Poets ºpadov.
AI-, “I fear,” fut. &eta'opal, l aor. ºetra, 2 aor. Élov,
perf. 8éootka, 8éðia, plural déðuev, 8éèvre, Čečiaori, imperat.
3éðiði. In Homer,
&etoia, beiðiði. Ainut signifies,
“I pursue,” pass. “I flee.”
Aérvvu, Seikvuto, “I show,” root AEK-, “to hold out
the hand,” fut. Seºw, l aor. ºeſºa, perf. pass. 3éðetypal, 1
aor. pass. &etx0mv, &c., imperat. &eikvº for Čeſkviði. In the
Ionic it is déºw, goeşa, &c.
Aéuw, “I build,” laor. Éepa, perf. 8éðunka.
Aéxopal, “I hold out my hand to take or receive,” Ion.
8ékouai, syncopated aor. Éeekto, &#x0ai. Perf. pass, part.
º
Čečeyuévos and Čečoknuévos, “watching,” “lurking.” Same
root as Čeſk-vu-ut and ook-éw.
INFLEXION.
141
Aéw, “I bind,” fut. pass. Seória ouai.
Aéw, “I want,” used impersonally det, fut. Señorel; pass.
3éouai, “I need,” “I entreat,” fut. Beforouai.
Atôpaakw, generally used in composition, “I run,” fut.
aparouai, l aor. £opaga, perf. 8éðpaka. We have also 2
aor. £ºpav, 3pts, painv, pával, &pſis, as from a verb in -ui.
The root is paſ, patr-, or ēpap-. Comp. Öparerns and
#8papov, &pageſ.
okéw, “I seem,” fut. §okforw”, perf. §ečáknka”. Also
fut. 86% w, l aor. £80èa, p. pass. 3éðoyuai. The root is
AEK-, as in 8éxouai and Čeſkvvu.
Apaueiv. See &topdoxo and Tpéxw.
Advapai, “I am able,” imperf. ºvvdunv, Attic rièvvdunv,
fut. 8vvmorouai, 1 aor. mid. Čºvunordunv, l aor. pass. &vvmónv
(Attic novvníðnv), sometimes éðvvdorffnv, perf. p. 3e3v.vnual.
Alſo, transitive, “I put on,” diſvo, intransitive, 2 aor. £ovv,
“I went into,” “put on myself,” 300, 80yal, ovs, perf. 8éövka,
cf. equv, trépuka. Forêev, 3 pers, sing. 2 aor., we find Čvokev.
The 2 fut. Öſaw, l aor. Čovoa, are transitive.
E.
"Eyeſpo, “I wake,” perf. Ynyepka, ćyfyepua. Also
éypriyopa, “I am awake.” The root is dyep-, “to gather,"
or “collect.”
EA-, “I eat,” see Śarðtw.
"Ečouai, “I seat myself,” more used in the compound
kafléčouai, fut. Kaffedovual, aor. Kaffnunv.
'Ee-, “I am accustomed,” perf eſota, part. 300w in Hom.
EIA-, or more properly, FIA-, “I see,” 2 aor. eidov
(Homer toov), ièé, ièw, teoul, ièeſv, *čav. These complete
the tenses of opdo, which has no future or aorist. Pres.
mid. eidouai, “I seem,” videor, l aor. elordunv. The 2 aor.
eiðounv has an active sense, “I see with interest,” “I be
hold,” or “gaze on;” imperat. ièow perispomenon (ièow oxy
tone, ecce).
The same root also signifies, “I know,” fut. Hom. etërjora,
Attic eforouai, 2 perf oièa, “I know," pluperf. §§ew: fēuev
for otòapev, infin. toueval, conj. ièéw, in Homer and Doric
writers.
The following Table shews the different tenses of this
verb which were in common use:—
142
INFLEXION.
INDICATIVE.
{
Perfect,
S. oića
olorffa
D.
tortov
torre
P. foruevi
S.
#èew
Attic #&n
}
;3
moe.
--
ñoets
D.
Pluperfect,
P. fºeuev
poet, figuev
olòe
forov
toragi.
}
#3eirov
poet. Đatov
jøeire
jorre
} :
}
matnv
ñºeiaav
...)
noav.
etorouai.
Future,
IMPERATIVE.
foró,
torrow
torre
CoNJUNCTIVE.
S.
D.
P.
torro
tortov
to roorav.
elöö, eièns, eiðfi, K. T. A.
OPTATIVE.
S. elčeſnv
D.
P.
effelnuev }
eièeſuev
INFINITIVE.
eiðéval.
eièeins
eièeinrov
eièeinre
elêein
eiðeinrnv
º
eiðeſev.
PARTICIPLE.
eiðaſs.
EIK-, “I resemble," 2d perf oika, Čolka; pl. goryuev,
plup. §§kew; another Attic form is elka ; fut. eišw. For
eikaariv the Attics said eſſagiv.
'Exaſvo, “I drive,” (i.e., both veho and vehor), root
EAA-, (above, 144), fut. Adoro, Attic A6, l aor. Aaga,
perf. Affaaka, p. pass. Anaapai, 1 aor. Addnv.
'EAYê-, “I come,” see &pxopal.
"EAkw, “I drag,” forms 1 aor. and perf as from éxxv-.
"EArw, “I cause to hope,” Atropal, perf. §oAta, “I
hope.”
-
EA-, “I take,” see aſpéo.
'ENEK, 'ENEIK-, 'ENETK-, “I bear,” see pépe.
'Evirto", “I chide,” an Homeric word, has two forms of
the 2 aor. ºviratov, and évévitrov.
! Otóaplev, otöare, otöaoru, occur in Ionic and later writers. Otoare is
found in Aristoph. Ach. 294, and olòas in Eurip. Alcest. 780.
143
INFLEXION.
"Evvvut”, “I put on,” fut. §aw, Édow, Éogouai, l aor. £ora,
toga, Čaordunv, p. pass. eiual, pluperf. 2 pers, sing. ēgoro, 3
£aro, 3 plural eſaro, aor. pass. Eat'nv (eſarai and eſato are
also from éð).
In prose, only duºpiévvvut occurs, fut. duquégouai and
dubić (from duºpiéro), l aor. iuºtega, perf. pass. mugie
opiat.
* ENO6-, “I shake,” or “agitate,” 2 perf. ºvivo0a.
'Etrfor rapal, “I understand,” middle of éqſatnut, Ionic
ériotnut, imp. rituattiumv, fut. Šariatria ouai, l aor. Tigri
ônv, Attic rituatríðnv.
'EII-, or more properly FETI-, “I say,” evétro, evvétro,
2 aor. eitrov, eitré, eitro, eitrout, eitreſu, eitrºv, l aor, eitra, an
Ionic form, whence the Attics said eitas (2 pers. sing.
indic.), also eiträtw, eltrártov, eſtate, and sometimes elirov
or eitröv, in the imperat.
For grw the poets used a tra, whence évía Tw.
Tenses supplied from 'EP-, are fut. Špéo (€péra) Ionic, pó
Attic ; perf act. eſpnka, p. pass. eſpnual, l aor. pass. Agri
0nv, Ionic ēśéðnv, fut. etpriorouai. The middle, in a causa
tive sense, “I cause to speak,” is used to form tenses of
£pardo, “I ask.” In this sense we have an aorist ripópnv,
Époº, pouai, £péadai, and a fut. pricouai.
From eſpnual are derived finua, finitop, &c.
"Ewº", “I am employed about anything" (in Homer,
and the compounds in Attic prose), imperf, eitrov, 2 aor.
to trov, as in reotrov, riorités, éttornw, earía tropil, étrio"rev,
&micrºtav, fut. pévo. Whence the middle
"Etropat, “I follow,” imperf. eiträumv, 2 aor. Gortoumv,
imperat. atréo, a reſo, fut. Vrouai. Poets after Homer had
also go trouai, Šotrotunv, Šotréa.0ai.
'Epdw, “I love,” (in Epic, &c., papal, l aor. mpaordunv),
1 aor. ripdorónv, amavi, part. pass. pauevos, “loved.”
EPT-, or more properly FEPT-, “I do,” fut. *pśw, l aor.
*pśa, 2 perf. §opya: other forms of the present are épôw
and fiéºw. Hence 'Epydúouai, “I labour at,” (see 354).
"Epyw, “I inclose,” “keep off,” in Homer and Herodotus;
in the former frequently €épyw. Hence épxatal, pxato,
drépéal, direpyuévos.
In Attic writers eſpyw, “I shut out,” eſpyw, eſpyvvu.
(aspirated), “I shut in.”
"Epow, “I do,” see flé w.
-
144
INFLEXION.
'Epeſºw, “I lean against,” plup. pass. 3 sing. ripipelato,
3 pl. pnpéðaro, “was fixed firm,” or “rested.”
'Epeiro, “I dash down,” 2 aor. ipitrov, intr. but also in a
assive form, as appears from the participle épitreſs, perf.
épiipura, intr. but also in a passive form, priptugal.
Obs. These verbs, though almost contradictory in sig
nification, are often confused by students, and sometimes
even by lexicographers and commentators, as in Aristoph.
-
Eq., 627.
EPIA-, “I contend,” l fut. Špièrforw, l aor. mid. epièſ
gagga", perf, with pres, sign. pnptopai. Hence épío and
épièaívo.
"Effw, “I go away,” fut. §§priorw, &c.
'Epwflaſvuº, “I make red,” pewtºw, fut. Špejorw, puffraw,
perf. ripúðnka.
'Epiſw, “I draw,” has v short in flexion; umpſo, though
another form of the same word (117), has the v long. We
have, however, eipúa'ato, floorbal, &c.
"Epxouai (from EPX-, OPX-, connected with OPET-)
“I make a straight line for myself,” “I go forward,”
“I come,” is the most irregular verb in the Greek language.
Even the imperf. ripxöunv is seldom used. Its complement
of tenses is made up from I-, which furnishes the imperf.
#ew or fia, and the fut. elut (329); from EAYe- which
furnishes the aor. Abov (Hom. Avtov) fut. Aeſorouai (very
rare in good Attic), perf. Aft\vda (Hom. elAriadv6a); from
'I-, which furnishes the perf. in the sense, “I am come,”
gen. #kw, ſkw, irdvo, ixvéouai (above, 319); in the sense,
“I am gone,” otyouai, otywka, the past tenses of these verbs
representing the pluperfect. The infin. pres. is gen, ieval,
and the partic. laiv.
'Eatº, #600, “I eat,” from 'EA-, perf act. Śēríčoka, p.
pass. Öröeopal, 2 perf. &nda, fut. 330pal: from baſ-,
2 aor. Épayov.
Eſpírkw, “I find,” from "EYP-, fut. eupriorw, perf. act.
eipnka, p. pass. eſpnual, l aor. eupéðnv, 2 aor, act. eipov,
mid. eupéunv. Verbal adjective, euperéos. See atroºpas.
"Exo, “I have,” fut. §§w, 2 aor. Goryov, imperat. oxés,
subj, q x6, opt. oxoinv, inf. oxeſv, part, oxºv, 2 aor. mid.
éoxöunv, oxov, axiouai, oxoiumv, axérôal, axéuevos. Also
fut, oxnaw, mid, oxrigouai, perf toxnka, perf. pass. Boxn
pal, 1 aor. £oxéðnv. Hence a new present, axé00.
145
INFLEXION.
From éxw are formed faxw, and the compounds ºrigyo
pal, Uriaryvéopai. 'Autréxw, “I clothe,” has a mid, duri
axedugi.
E-, “I place,” or “set up,” l aor, eiga, mid. eladunv,
perf. p. huai, “I sit.” Derivative forms, *(ouai, ſº, q.v.
Z
Zdw, “I live” (Cº, ös, Öi, above, 343), imperat, ºn and
(76i, imperf. (ov and ɺnv, -ns, -n, fut. Gioro and Giorouai.
The Attics use the aorist égiov, Buºval, Blows, and the perf.
Begioka.
Zée, “I boil,” fut. Céro, verbal Cearás.
H.
THA-, “I please.” See divºdvo.
Thua, “I sit,” perf. pass. of 'E-, “I set,” pluperf.3 pers.
pl. aro and eſato, for fivro, imperat. Woo, infin. mortal, part.
huevos, not muévos, on account of the present signification.
Compound kā0nual, kā0ngo, kafloiumv, káðwpal, kaðnaðai;
imperf. ékaðmunv. See tºo.
6.
€AF-”, “I am astonished,” or “perplexed,” used only in
the poets, 2 perf. Téðnira, 2 aor. Étapov. Hence rapos,
“astonishment,” 0a0-pa = flaſ-a-ua, 0dopal, 6éaouai, &c.
Gatto, “I bury,” fut. 6dvºw, p. pass. Tefláupal, l aor.
£6dq6nv, 2 aor. Śrāq'nv.
6éw, “I run,” fut. 6eſorouai. See. Tpéxw.
€ly yºvo, “I touch,” BIT-, fut. 6% w and 0#opal, 2 aor.
661) ov.
€vifaxw, “I die,” from 6AN-, fut. 6avojuai, 2 aor.
#flavov, perf. Téflunka, plural réðvauev, -ate, -ãort, imperat.
réðvaði, conj. Teflunko, optat. Teóvaínv, inf. reflvåval, part.
reóveals, rebunals, and Teflvetøs. From réðvnka comes a new
verb, rebvriko, fut. Teflunăw, rebvričouai.
epairkw, “I leap,” from €0P-, fut. 6opoſual, 2 aor.
#0opov, perf. rétopa. Another form is 6dpvuual.
I.
"Iöw, ka0ſo, “I seat myself,” root 'EA-, fut, kaðið, aor.
exafluora and ka0ſora, fut. middle ka0ićforouai. We find
also ka0é(ouai as from éo, imperf, exaflet dunv, in the
Tragedians kaffe'dunv used as an aor, fut. Kaffedovuai.
D. G. G.
10
146
INFLEXION.
"Inui, “I set a going,” root 'I-; the following forms are
in use:
-
Active, pres. Inui, ins, &c. taorw, or feſortv, ſet for teth
ió, feinv, iéval, ieſs; imperf. Inv and ſovv (in comp.
dqíovv Or riſpíovv, also rightew), 3 pl. righteorav. fut.
#orw, l aor. mka. Ion. Énka. Perf. eika. The laor, is
used only in the sing. In the plural we have Éuev, ºre,
$orav, or with the augment eluev, eire, eſorav (dqeſoray,
&c.), as from 2 aor, ºv. Also in the moods is, é,
eſnv, cival, eſs.
Passive and middle like Tíðmut, i.e. feual, &c.
Perf.
eiual, eia flat, eiuévos, 1 aor. middle, nºdunv, 2
aor. middle éunv or eſºnv, 1 aor, pass. £6my or eſtiny.
The l aor. middle is used only in the indic. In
the moods we have oč, ćunv, eſpnv, a bai, £uevos,
60nti, 600, €6etunv, 60mval, éflets.
From the perf. act. with an intransitive signification
pass.
we have (above, 352)
'Ikvéopal, “I come,” by the side of ſko, and ikavºo, fut.
#ouai, 2 aor. iköumv, perf. (only in composition) dºpiyuai.
‘IAdorkouai, “I conciliate,” or “propitiate,” from Adouai,
fut. Adorouai : imperat. (An6, or Adiós, pres, mid. Aapai".
"It rapat. See Tétouai.
"Ianui, “I know,” in the sing, occurs only in the Doric
forapu, and forati for tornai.
See FIA-.
K.
Kaf-vu-ual, root KA6-; the dental is also omitted (above,
86, 103) in kai-vos and ka-Ads; perf. pass. Kékagua, “I
surpass,” also, “I am distinguished by,” pl. perf. Kekdaunº,
part. kekaguévos, and kekaðuévos.
Katw, “I burn,” (uro), Attic kaw, fut. Kawato, l aor.
#Kavara, Ekna, part. Kéas, ketas, and in later writers, kavaas,
erf. pass. Kékavual, l aor. Kaū0nv, 2 aor. ekdnv, l aor. mid.
Čkeidunv".
KaNéw, “I call,” fut. KaNéow, contr. Kaxtº, aor. ČkdAega,
perf. Kékanka, aor, pass. KAmönv, p. pass. Kék\nual, opt.
kekAſiumv, kékAno, fut, pass. KAndria ouai, and kekarigouai, fut.
mid. kaxovuai.
Kduva, “I grow weary,” fut. Kapoopia, 2 aor. Kauov,
perf. Kékpınka, part. Kekunkºs, kekunois.
147
INFLEXION.
Keſuat, “I lie down,” (a syncopated perfect), imperat.
ketoro, conj. Kéopal, opt. Keotpnv, (as from kéopal), inf. kei
a flat, part. Keſuévos, imperf. Keiumv, fut. Ketoropai.
KéAoual", “I order,” fut. Kexfoopa", 2 aor. £kekAdunv”.
Kepdvvvut, “I mix,” fut, kepāow, contr. kepto, l aor.
exépåga, perf. pass. Kékpauai and keképaguai, l aor. ekpáðnv
and ékepdoºnv. Also kipwdw, kipwmui.
Kepèaſvuº, “I gain,” fut. Kepèavò, Ionic keptavéo, l aor.
isépèava; also in Ionic and later writers keporiaouai, and
éképônora.
É.
root KAA-, “I make anxious,” “I afflict,” “I
bereave,” knèſoo, aor. Kékačev, perf. Kéknèa, intr. pass.
kekaërjorouai.
We should refer to this root the form kekd
dovro, which is generally connected with Xaſouai. The
anariety of the enemy when the warrior was about to shoot
(Hom. Il. IV, 497; xv, 574) was as natural as their retreat
ing; and as in one case the foeman is shot through the
temple, in the other through the breast, the mention of
retreat is rather out of place. The preposition too is Jaro,
and not avd.
KiXava, “I overtake,” from KIX-, 2 aor. Éxixov: fut.
kikriorw, 2 aor. Škixnv, kixeinu, kixw, kixnval, kixels. We
have also the Attic present kiyxãvo.
Kíxpnpu, “I lend,” fut. xprſaw, l aor. Expnora.
KAd{w, “I clang,” “make a noise,” fut. KAdyśw, perf.
kékAayya, 2 perf. KékAnya, 2 aor. KAayov.
KAato, “I weep,” Att. KAdw, fut. KAainaw, KAawaw,
KAavorouai, and k\avoroupiat.
KAºw”, “I listen,” imperf. KAvov, imperat. KA961, KAJre,
and kékAü0i, kékAüre.
Kopévvvut, “I satisfy,” fut. Kopérw, l aor. Škópeoa, perf.
keköpnka", p. pass. Keköpnual”, Attic keköpeauai, l aor. pass.
ékopéo-0nv.
Kpd{w, “I crow,” fut. *ekpd{ouai, 2 aor. Kpayov, perf.
kéxpaya, imperat, pass. Kékpax6i, as if from a verb in º-l.
Kpepdvvvut, “I suspend,” from KPEMA-, fut. Kpegåga,
contr. Kpeud, l aor. ekpéuaga, l aor. pass. expeudo-0mv,
middle kpéuauai, “I hang,” like ſo tapal, fut. Kpeuſiaopai.
Another form is kphuvnu, imperat. Kpfuwn”, pass. Kpiuva
Mat.
Kretvw, “I kill,” root KTA-, fut. Krevio, l aor. £kretva,
perf. Extova, l aor, pass. 'ktdönv (in Homer
2 aor.
º
0–2
148
INFLEXION.
#Kravov, and also kraw, inf. Krdueval, mid. Krdoba, part.
kºrds, mid. Kºrduevos.
Kuvéw, “I kiss,” fut. Kürw.
KvXívčw and kvXivöéw, “I roll,” from kvXiw, fut. Kvariº,
-
-
1 acr. ekºta'a, pass. ékv\to 0nv.
Kupéw, “I hit upon,” is regular, but has lso the primary
forms kºpoua, Škºpov, Kipaw, ekſpra.
Kºw, “I am pregnant,” l aor. mid. exvordunv.
A.
Aayyāva, “I receive by lot,” from AAX-, fut. Ančopal,
erf eixnxa, 2 aor. Aaxov. An old perf was Aéoyxa,
omer has AeAdXw, “I give by lot.”
Aapſ3dvo, “I take,” from AAB-, fut. Arivouai, perf.
eſança (Ion. AeAd;3mka), pass. et\muual or AéAnupal, l aor.
éAriºpônv, 2 aor. Aaftov. Ionic forms are Aduvopal, Aap
Wyaunv, AéAappal, éAduºpónv.
Aavödvo, “I am hidden,” root AAB-, mid. Aavºdvouai
and Aribouai, “I forget,” from Añów, fut. Anow, perf. AéAng
pal, 2 aor. Aabov, Aaddumv, mid. perf. AéAn6a, Homer
has AeAdów, “I cause to forget.”
Aéyw, “I say,” fut. Aéâw, perf wanting, p. pass. AéAeyuai,
1 aor. Aéx0nv. But Aéyw, “I collect,” fut. Aéºw, perf.
et\oxa, p. pass. etàeyuai, 2 aor. Aeyny.
Afagoua," and Aſtropai, (fut. Ata'op'al), l aor. Alora duny,
Aoûw, “I wash,” from AOF-, fut. Aoéow, Aoûorw, l aor.
éAdega, ÉAdeoga, contr. Aova'a, Attic pres. Aoûual (from
Adopal), imperf. plur. Aoupev.
Aww, “I loose, Avro, Avara ; but €Aúðnv, AéAüual. Homer
has a 2 aor, pass. Aiſumu, Ayro, Aſvto, and opt. AeAuto,
Pindar has imper. A50.
M.
Maivopal, “I am mad,” uovovual, épdunu, uéunva, synony
mous with the present. But laor, act. Épinwa means “I
made mad.”
Mav6dvo, “I learn,” from MA6-, 2 aor. Buaflov, fut.
pathiaouai, Dor. uateºuai, perf. Lepidónka.
Máxopal, “I fight,” futuaxérouai, and (as from uaxéo
ual) paxmoouai, Attic paxoſual, l aor. £uaxerdunu, and in
Homer éuaxnordunu, perf pass. Hepaxnuévos.
Maidual, “I seek,” or “desire,” root MA-- MEN-(above,
85, 106, cf. 160) perf pièuaa, pepdaal, uéuova, usuads, also
INFLEXION.
149
syncopated uéuâuev, &c. pres, mid. Hºuai, imper. paleo, 1
fut. uda oual, l aor. £uagdunv; cf. Sato, 3doraoréal, &c. The
root MEN- appears in the present pévo, “I am fixed,” or
“remain,” with perf. Leuévnka. Also in ui-uum-okw.
Meipopal", “I obtain,” perf. ºppopa, perf. pass, eſpaptai,
part. eiuapuévos.
MéAAw, “I am minded to do,” fut. LeMXriorw, imp. Guex
Aov and huex,\ov.
MéAw, “I am an object of concern,” péAouai, “I lay to
heart,” fut. Heanoro, uéAmorouai, poetic form uéuſłAouai, perf.
m. uéunaa. The active is gen. impersonal, as péAeluoi,
“it concerns me,” &c. The compound ue rapéAet, “it re
pents,” is always impersonal.
Mnkdopal, “I bleat,” 2 aor. Buakov, perf. Léunka, part.
fueunkos, usunkvia and ueuákvia.
Míyvvut, “I mix,” and pſoryo", for pſy-orkw, from MIT-,
fut. Mišw, perf. p. Méuiyuai, l aor, pass. eutx0nv, 2 aor.
éputymw.
Mºuvrforkw, “I remind,” root MEN- = MA-, fut. act. uvnow,
“I will remind,” mid. uvigouai, “I will remember,” perf.
p. uéuvnual, l aor. Guvnorðnv, “I remember.”
Mukdouai, “I roar,” fut. uvknigopal, 2 aor. Buikov, perf.
Méuvka.
N.
Natio”, “I dwell,” laor. ºvao ora, “I made to dwell,” laor.
m. Evago dunu, l aor. p. evdoºnv, cf. 8aiw, and paíouai.
Néw occurs in four different senses:—
, (1) Néw, “I heap,” laor. Évnora, perf. p. vévnual and
wevnorpta i.
(2) Néw, “I spin,” conjugated regularly.
Hence the
derivative vröw.
(3) Néw, “I swim,” fut. vevoroºpal, l aor, ºvevora, perf.
vévévka. Hence wrixto, fut. vičouai.
(4) Néouai" (used only in the poets), “I go, “return;"
in Homer also vedual. Hence the form viororouai, fut.
vío'ouai.
Níčw, “I wash,” tenses supplied from virtw.
ºw
-
ºte
3éw, “I cut with the edge,” root EEF- (found in Éqos, cf.
£3púw, Bpéqos), fut. £éow ; also under the form {vo, #vorai.
From this we have £ºpe, £upéw, £vpdw, “I shave,” mid.
£ºpouai, £vpdunv, pass. &pnual.
150
INFLEXION.
O.
"O(w, “I emit a smell,” from "OA-, fut. 3&fra, Ionic,
očario, perf. 6308a, with sense of present.
tyw, v. divoſyo.
Oièatvw, otödvo, “I swell," from otöéw, fut. oièrforw, perf.
ºënka.
Ovča. See above, under EIA-- FIA-.
Otopia and oluai, “I think,” imp. ºdunv and junv: the
other persons and moods are taken as from oleouai, fut.
oligouai, aor. ºntºnv. Homer has oto, dio, and diouai.
Oxopal, “I am gone,” fut. olxriorouai, perf. §xnual,
oixwka, and ºxnka. See ºpxouai.
OAirflaſvuo, öAirflåvo, “I slide or slip,” fut. dAtaffhow, 2
aor. &Ato-flow.
"OAAvut, “I destroy,” from OA-, with affix -v- (above,
102), fut. 6Aéro (Att. dA6), l aor. ÖAeora, perf. dAuſAeka;
mid. 6AAiſual, fut. GAoûual, perf. 88toxa, “I am undone," 2
aor. Aéunv, l aor. p. ºxérômv. The participle daguevos,
ovXóuevos is used as an adjective signifying “fatal,” “de
structive.”
"Ouvvut, “I swear,” fut. Guoqual, l aor. Guoga, Judônv,
perf duduoka, perf. p. duduorua, 3 pers. Guðuotal and
dugºuorral, l aor, part. duodeſs.
'Ouépyvvut, “I wipe off," from 'OMOPT-, or 'AMEPT-,
fut, dućpčw, l aor. duopča.
'Ovivnu, “I benefit,” fut. Gvnaw, l aor. ºvnora, pres. p.
ovívapai and Övnual, imper. Övngo, 2 aor. ºváunv, imperf.
duriumv, opt. ovaíunv.
'OTI-. See dpaw.
-
'Opdw, “I see,” imperf. tºpov, perf act. Štěpáka, perf.
pass. Saipauai. The other tenses are supplied from Oſl
and FIA-, fut. 8vouai, perf. p. ºupal, &Wral, &rtal, inf.
dq6al, l aor. 34p0nv, 2 perf 3rotra in the poets. See EIA
=FIA-.
"Opwul", “I excite,” fut. Športo, l aor. Öpora, perf. p.
dpºpeuai, imperat. §poro, inf. §pflat, part. dpuévos, plup.
tºpro, 2 perf. §pupa, “I am risen,” and ºpopa, generally
transitive.
Hence a new present pass. dpapopa, 2 aor.
tºpgunv. Homer has āpaeo, as if from a present &pgouai.
'Orppaívouai, “I smell,” fut do ſpprioropal, aor. Jorg.pduny
and woºpdunv.
Outdo", ouráčo, “I wound,” 3 pers. 2 aor. ovira, perf.
part. pass. ourduevos for oùraguévos.
-
151
INFLEXION.
... 'Opet\w, “I owe,” “must,” fut. Gqeixnaw. The aor.
tºpéAov occurs only as the expression of a wish, eið tºgeXov
(Ionic, altº à pexov). Homer also doubles the A, as ºpeAAov.
'Oq}\lakdvio, “I owe,” “am guilty of,” “incur,” 2 aor.
dq'Aéiv.
II.
IIaíčw, “I sport,” fut. Traíšopal and traičovual, but laor.
&ratora, perf. Tétratra,
p. pass.
Tétraigual
and
Tétraiyuai.
IIda'xw, “I suffer,” for tra6-0 kw, fut. Tretorouai, 2 aor.
#Taflov, 2 perf. Trétrov6a, part. fem. Tetraffvia in Homer. Cf.
a révôw.
IIardo'oro : see TA forgo, which furnishes the passive.
IIaréouai, “I eat,” &tagdunu, Tétraorua, cf. 8atéouai,
3dorao flat.
IIeſtºw, “I persuade,” pass. “I believe,” or “obey,” to
which signification also belong retoopa, Tétrelapai. But
2 perf. Trétotôa signifies, “I trust.”
IIeadCo, TeXaw. See Tſavnut.
IIéorgio, Tétro, “I digest,” fut. Tévo, as if from Tétro,
perf. pass. Tétreppſal, l aor. Tépônu. .
IIET- (1). This root appears in three verbs with the cog
nate significations: (1) “I fall.” (2) “I spread out wings in
falling. (3) “I fly or remain suspended in the air.”—(1) “I
fall,” with reduplication triarto, with v affixed rítvw, 2
aor. Doric ºretov, in other dialects reorov, fut. m. Treaſov
plot, perf. Tétraka or rétºrna, part. Tettnais, terreds, or
Tetrºrays.
(2) IIETA-, in IIerdvvvut, “I expand,” fut. Tetdow
(Att. Teté), l aor. Tétara, perf. pass. Tetéraopai, Attic
tréttapal, 1 aor. Šterda (nv.
(3) Ilétopal, “I fly,” 2 aor. Terdunv, by sync. tTGºnv.
Hence mid. Trauai, fut. Trigouai, Tetria ouai, 2aor. Étºrmv,
Tró, trainv, tºrmvat, tras (mid. Ttdo-flat, Trduevos). IIé
tapal occurs, but not in Attic: also totaouai, Trotéopal,
and twºrd opal; but tet douai in later writers.
IIriyvvu, ºrnyvºw, “I fasten,” fut. Triśw, l aor. Tméa,
perf pass. Tétnyuai, 1 aor. Trixónv, 2 aor. Taynu, perf.
trétnya, “I am fixed.”
II:Avnul, pass. TríAvapai, “I approach,” from TeXgo",
trexačw, fut. Texagg, perf. pass. Trémanual, l aor. TAdoºnv
or étråd ºnv, 3 plur. 2 aor. TAñvro, as if from TAnu.
IIſuranul, “I fill,” from IIAE- (TAffle, “I am full),
152
INFLEXION.
imperat. TAño'o, opt. TAſiumv, fut. TAirw, 1 aor. #TAmora,
F. trétanka, perf. pass. Trétrangual, l aor, pass.
TAmorónv.
n compounds, if u precedes trium Amul, the first u is dropped;
as in ºutritramui: but we have evertutxagav, &c.
IIiumpmul, “I burn,” “set on fire,” as formul, fut. Tprioto,
hº
1 aor. Érpnga,
act. Téºpnka, perf. pass. Trétrpngual, 1
aor. Śrpfaffnv. In compounds, if a precedes the verb, the first
p is dropped; as in éparitpavtes; but it is resumed if the
augment intervenes, as in everturpagav.
IIivo, “I drink,” fut. Triouai, (triovua was later), 2 aor.
£riov, imperat. trie (the Attics said trib). The other tenses
are from TIO-, perf. Tétroka, pass. Trétouai. Hence also
tritſakw, “I give to drink,” fut. Tírw.
IIirpaakw, “I sell,” from repaw, fut. Trepare, Attic
trepò, (repaw, “I pass over,” makes repara), perf act.
trérpaka, perf. pass. Trétpāua, l aor. &mpaônv, Attic fut.
pass. Trempdorouai. For the middle form, signifying “I
cause to be sold," i.e. “I buy,” see ºvéouai and "píaotai.
IIºrra, “I fall,” see IIET- (1).
-
IIAéw, “I sail,” root IIAEF-, fut. TrAeſoroua, and raev
oroguai, l aor. TAevara, perf. Tétraevka, 2 aor. TAwv". An
Ionic form is ratew.
IIAfro-w, “I strike,” fut. TAríčw, &c., 2 aor. TAriyny, in
compounds ºn Agyny, as Kate tradyny, “I was struck with
terror,” 2 aor. with redupl. réiranyov”. The Attic writers
use ratdoorw as the active of this verb.
IIvéw, “I blow,” root IINEF-, fut. Trveſorouai and rvevorov
pai", l aor. Twevora, perf act. Tétvevka, perf. pass. Trévv
pai”, “I reflect,” “am prudent,” Homer has a form wwww;
duruve, “recover thyself.” We have the same root in
wrviſororo, rivuorkw, “I make wise.”
IIpſaoréal. See ºvéopal.
IIrforarw, “I crouch,” from IIET-, “I fall,” 2 aor. dual
karaºrrºrmv", as if from karatºrnut, perf mid. part. "retr
ºrnés". The other tenses are regular, Triśw, ºrtnča, ºr
Tnxa.
IIvv8avouai, “I learn by enquiry,” also reſbouai, fut.
reſorouai, perf. Trévvorua, 2 aor. Tv6óunv.
P.
'Péča, ºpew, “I do,” fut. §éčw, *pśw, l aor. pass. exfleſs,
2 perf opya.
'Péw, “I flow,” root PEF-, fut. §eſa oual, l aor, fiftewara,
INFLEXION,
153
2 sor pass ºnv, fut. Avigoua, perf fiftinka, as from
'Priyvvut, finyvºw, “I break,” “rend,” from FPAT-, priorow,
pused.
fut. §ričw, 2 aor. pass. §§§dynv, 2 perf. §§wya intransitive.
'Pirro and Éirréal, “I throw,” and “I keep throwing,"
(jacio and jacto); in the pass. and imperf both forms are in
use; but all the other forms are from fºr rw only. The is
long : hence flirte, ÉNeal, aorist pass. égéſpºny and fiftºnv.
'Paivvvut, “I strengthen,” fºopal, “I am active,” fut.
fluoro, p. pass. Épéopal, imp. §§ogo, “farewell,” inf. §§§6
a flat, l aor. §§ºotnv.
>.
Xadw”, “I save,” found only as orida, but raoſs, oraoſ,
gaoûort, imperat. a'aoû. We generally find the secondary
form oraſo, fut. a dow, l aor. Čorwara, perf oréawka, pass.
géo wouai, and géorwual, l aor. Čač0nv: sometimes resolved
in Homer, as in the fut. ordworw, &c.
23évvvut, “I extinguish,” fut. offéra, perf. pass. offegual,
2 aor. Boºnv, inf. rſ3rival, perf. §oſºnka in an intransitive
sense, “I am extinguished.”
2eſw”, “I shake,” or “drive,” from XEF- (whence also
aeſw, a dw, ordio, ado), l aor. £orgeva, mid. Čorevdunv, p. pass.go
oriual, “I rush,” plup. Goro ſunv, l aor. £ororiſ0nv, 3 aor. Gorūnv.
From a do come the 3 pres. imperat. mid. Todate, 2 pl. gov
offe, and the 3 pres. ind, goural, pl. orouvral.
>keódvvvut, “I disperse,” fut. oºkečāorto, Att. a keó6, perf.
pass. Šakéðaguai. Another form is a kiövnu, akiövapai; also
keodo", kebaſto", and kíðvnut”.
XxéAAw, “I dry up,” transitive, fut. o.ke/A6, mid. orkeaou
ual, fut. akaAſ, or oxaafforw, l aor. Éakn\a, perf. Fork\nka,
part. §ork\nais, “being dried up,” 2 aor. £orkAny, “I was
dried up,” fut. mid. akāriorouai.
Xudo, gunxw, “I smear,” fut. optiow, from audiw, Ion.
guéw ; 1 aor, pass. Gopinxónv. Xunxo is not Attic in the
present.
Xırévêw, “I pour out,” I draw forth,” root XIIA6-,
(above, 302), fut. atreforw, perf. pass. Éatretoruai. Cf. ºrérov
ta, retaropal, where v is similarly inserted before 0.
Xropévvvu, a répuupu, “I strew,” or “lay down,” and
otpavvvut, fut. atopéow and otpadow, l aor. éo tapega or
totpwara, p. pass. Earptopai, aor, pass. éa topéorèmv.
154
INFLEXION.
T.
TAA- =TAA-, “I bear,” “dare,” fut. m. TAriorouai, l aor.
in Homer, éréaugora, perf. Tétºnka, pl. réTAap ev, part. Te
rands in the Poets. 2 aor. &rAmv, TAmbi, TA6, TAaínv, TAjval,
TAds (in Homer, rétXabi, retAaínv, retAdval).
TA-, “I stretch out the hand to,” imperat. Ti. Hence
2 perf. Téraya and a new pres, retdyw. From this verb,
reivu, borrows its perfects téráka and Tétáuai. Cf. TEN
yéyaa, MEN-pièmaa ; and see above (85).
Téuvo, “I cut,” fut. Teuto, Ionic tapéo, 2 aor. Tenov,
rarely €rapov in Attic, 2 aor, mid. Tendumu, more fre
quently érapidumv, perf. Tétunka, p. pass. Tétunual.
Teixio, “I make,” or “construct,” is regular, relºw,
grevča, Térvyuai, Štúx0nv. But although we have reteil
Xatai, “they are made,” the active form réteuxa is also
used in a passive sense (above, 352). Hence we have the
secondary verb Tvyxávo, “I hit the mark,” “I light upon,"
“I am successful in obtaining,” or, “I happen on a place
or person,” “I am somewhere just at a particular time:"
fut. Tetêopal, aor. Étuxov, (epic túxnga) fut. Tetúxnka.
In Pindar rörorai is an aor. synonymous with Tuxeiv; cf.
Točov, which contains the same root.
Tikto, “I bring forth,” fut. Těšw, Téopal, 2 aor. re
kov, perf. Tétoka.
"ivo, “I pay,” “expiate,” fut. Tía w, perf. réºrika, perf.
p. Tétigual; mid. Tivouai, “to punish: Tivo Ionic, tivu,
-
Attic.
TOP-, “I pierce,” found only in the aor. £ropov, Topeiv.
Hence (1) Tºrpāw, “I bore,” Attic retpaívo, fut Terpavéo
Ionic, l aor. Grétpnva, also Tpnga, l aor. pass. Gretpávönv,
perf. pass. Térpnual. (2) Titpºorko, “I wound,” from fut.
Tpégo, perf. pass. Tétpoſtal, l aor. Tpa,0nv, fut. pass. Tpw
Ömorouai and Tpºorouai.
Tuniyo”, “I cut,” l aor. &Tunša, 2 aor. Tuayov, intran
sit. 2 aor, part. pass. Tunyets, these two in compounds. See
répuw.
Tpépw, “Inourish,” fut. 6pévo, perf act. Térpoqa, perf.
pass. Té0pappal, l aor. £6pépônv, 2 aor. Tpdqnv. The 2
àor. Tpapov has in Homer a passive sense, as ºrpaq'ev,
“he was bred.”
Tpéxw, “I run,” fut. 6péopal, l aor. 36pe£a rare.
INFLEXION.
155
More commonly from APAM-, fut. *papopual, 2 aor. £3pa
pov, perf act. &eepāunka, pass. ©eepdunual, perf. m. Époua.
Tpºyte, “I nibble,” or “eat with the front teeth,” fut.
Tpºčouai, 2 aor. Tpayov.
Tvyxavo. See Teixw.
Tºrto, “I strike,” fut. Tvrtrida, perf. rerºrtnual, but
also regular.
Y.
‘Yºria Yvéouai, “I promise,” from Uttoxopal, fut. vºroo Yri
gouai, perf. Utréaxnual, l aor. Urea-Xéðnv, imperat. Utrooxé
0n+1, 2 aor. vireoxdunu.
q).
pAT-, “I eat,” has only the fut. (payouai (which is
Hellenistic), and 2 aor. Čºpayov. The other tenses are formed
from éorðia, and éðw.
-
(Paiva, “I show,” aor. §pnva; intransitive éqſavônv, q'awnv, pavoupal, répnva, “I am manifest,” (above, 352).
©EN-, “I, kill,” has acr. erepvov, and perf. pass. Tépa
flat, réparal, répavtat, inf. reqaadal, fut, requiaopai. Cf.
MEN-, &c. and see above, (85).
'Qépw, “I bear,” root pFP-, only in the pres, and imperf.;
the other tenses are supplied from OI- = FET-, (comp.
“weigh,” &c.), 'ENEK-, 'ETK-, Ion. Čvetko, fut. olorø,
oforouat (hence a pres, otorw, imperat. olore), aor. ºveyka and
nveykov (Ionic ºveika) perf. a. Švnvoxa, pass. evnveyua (Ion.
évrivelyuai), l aor. rivéx0nv (Ion. rivetx0mv), fut. p. vex0n
aouai and otodia ouai. The derivative popéu is conjugated
regularly, but there is an epic infin. popnval.
qbevyw, “I flee,” fut. pelºopal and pewfougal, perf. tré
ºpewya, 2 aor. Épuyov, p. pass. Trépuyuai.
qºnut, “I say,” root pA-, like formul; but the aorist &qnv
is generally an aorist like etrov, the frequentative pairkw,
£qaorkov, being used to express the continuous act of speak
ing. . In conversations we find the shorter form ñut, as in
& mul, traſ, traſ, “boy! boy! I say;” ºv 3’ eyeſ, “ said I;"
# 8' 3s, “ said he,” and in Epic writers, i, “he said.”
ºppéw, “I carry quickly,” from popée, occurs only in
composition, ékºppeºv, eloqpeiv, 8tappeſv, imperat. eloqpes,
as if from a verb in -ui.
q}0&vo, “I come before,” “anticipate,” from pfláw, fut.
p6qaw, laor. pºaga, perf. a. ptaka. Also fut. pfligouai,
156
INFLEXION.
2 aor, pônv, p.63, ºptainv, pönval, pºds, 2 aor, mid. part.
$63 mevos.
40tw, “I destroy,” trans., and pøtvw, “I fall,” or “waste
away,” which takes its tenses from the middle voice of
ºptio, fut. p9ía ouai, p. Eq6iuat (3 plur. Eq6ivrat), part.
ºp6tuevos. Hence pólvéw and pºwwºw.
q)ſe, “I flee,” or “put to flight,” 2 perf. part. Te
ºpvčas. Hence reqvyuévos, “having escaped:” hence also
*:
ww, “I bring forth,” fut.
piſaw, and purouai, perf. Té
gºvka, répua", 2 aor. ºpuv, “I am by nature,” (above, 327).
'Eqºnv is a later form.
X
Xaipw, “I rejoice,” fut. xapriorw, in later writers xapri
goua, 2 aor. exipnv, perf act. kexcipnka, pass. Kexipnual
and kéxapua. In Epic, 2 aor. Kexapdunv, 1 fut. Kexaphow,
and l aor. mid. Éxmpdumv.
Xavčávo, “I grasp,” or “contain,” (as a vessel), 2 aor,
exačov, perf. kéxavča, fut. xeirouai. Cf. orévêw.
Xéw, “I pour,” fut. Xevow, Attic Xéw, l aor. £xeva,
#xevaa, Attic ºxea, perf, a.kéxiſka, pass. Kéxiual, laor.
éxiànv.
Xpri, “it is necessary,” oportet (impers.), opt. Xpein,
conj. xpñ, inf. xpmvat, Xpiv, imperf. Expmv, more frequently
xpºv, part. xpedv, Attic for xpdov, fut. Xpriorei.
Xpavvvu, xpovvuo, “I colour,” from xpdo, xpºw, xpeſº
(all properly signifying “to touch the skin” or “surface"),
fut. xpdaw, l aor. Expwaa, perf. pass. Kéxpwouai.
Y.
Ydw, “I rub,” inf. Vºv, fut. Wºjaw, &c.
Yùxw, “I cool,” 2 aor, pass. Vºyny, &c.
Q.
'Q0éw, “I push,” fut. dow or ºthiaw, l aor. Éwaa, inf.
ºral, perf. a. ºwka, pass. Ewouai, l aor. Čajadny, fut. pass.
worömorouai.
Qvéopal, “I buy,” has the pass, aor. £oviðmy with sylla
bic augment, and the perf. §§vnual both passive and depo
nent. The Attic writers also used, as the aor. of this verb,
érpudunu, ºrpíago, or ºrpio, ºrpional, ºrpiaiumv, "píagdal, ºpt
duevos, from the same root as ºritpdakw.
PART IV.
DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION
§ I. Prefatory Remarks.
357 FROM the formation of individual words, and
their inflexion through the various modifications of the
noun and verb, Greek Grammar naturally passes on to con
sider the cognate, but subsequent, procedure, by virtue of
which (l) an existing noun or verb developes itself into a
secondary noun or verb, or (2) two distinct words are com
bined in one, and furnished with a single set of inflexions:
the former we call derivation ; the latter is termed compo
sition.
$ II. (1) Derivation.
358 The process of deriving one word from another is
effected in the same way as the formation of words in the
first instance, namely, by the addition of pronominal ele
ments, so that a new crude form becomes the vehicle of the
inflexions. There is naturally more variety in the second
ary formations of nouns than in those of verbs. For while
the person-endings of the verb have anticipated one pro
minent distinctive use of all three pronominal elements, the
cases of the noun are, as we have seen, connected only with
a special developement of the second and third elements.
Hence, in the derivative forms we find the converse.
In
the nouns all three pronominal elements are used, in their
distinctive senses, and in combination with one another,
to form nominal derivatives, while the verbal derivatives
are limited to that special developement of the second and
third elements, which we find in the cases of the noun.
§ III. (A) Derivative Nouns.
359 In the formation of nominal derivatives we observe
that the first pronominal element expresses that the thing
proceeds from, or immediately belongs to, the subject, the
second, that it has a relation to the subject, the third, that it
158
DERIVATION AND
COMPOSITION.
is a mere object, or something removed from the proximity
of the subject.
360 a. The first pronominal element, in the deriva
tive forms of nouns, appears generally as p-, rarely if ever
as Tr-.
b. The second very frequently, as a -, -, y-, k-, ri-, tv-,
v-, 6-, 3-.
c. The third only as r-, or v-.
d. The forms p-, A-, as degenerations from the 3-, 6-,
representatives of the second element, play a prominent part
in the formation of nouns.
e.
The first element is combined with the third, under
the forms M-v, u-T, with the second, after the third, in
M-v-u-, pt-v-k-.
f. The second element is combined with the first under
the form or-º-; with the third as F-T-, or-v-, -v-, Ti-, t-,
8-v-; with p-, as Ti-p-.
g. The third element is combined with A, p, in t-A-,
T-p, and doubled in -t-t-, -v-T.
361 The following are examples of these formations.
a. Ti-pri, “an honouring” or “appreciation” proceed
-
ing from the subject; ºvn-un, “a calling to mind;” rôt
pos, “a falling.” Often with a, 6, prefixed (above, 91), as
8er-uðs, “a binding;” Beg-ads, “a placing.” The force of
this ending is well shown by a comparison between the
Latin primus, “the first of a series beginning with the sub
ject,” and the Greek Tptº-tos, “the last of a series ending
with the subject:” between al-mus, “the nourisher,” and
alu-m-nus, “the nourished.”
b.
*tun-cris, “an imitation;” ſpº-ta, “a friendliness;"
itrard-rms = irri-kós = ºrtre-iſs, “equestrian,” or “having
relation to a horse;” &n-tūs “an eating;” uopt-êios, “of or
belonging to fate; &nué-otos, “popular,” and the like, are
all relative or qualitative words, and recall the sense which
properly attaches to the genitive case. Sometimes -n
appears for -ta, as in eux-n, “a praying.”
c. Ypat-tós, “written;”xplo-rós, “anointed;” 8e-wds,
“dreaded;” oreu-vös, or ger-Tös, “revered,” are all objective
words, expressing the results of an action.
d. Words in -Aos and -pos generally express a quality or
relation, as opposed to an object; comp. &et-Ads with el
vös; Heyd-Aos with mag-nus; Avy-pos with a rvy-vés; ix.
6-pos with [ć]:é-vos, &c.
DERIVATION AND
COMPOSITION.
159
e. A combination of (a) and (c) expresses the action, as
proceeding from the subject, in connexion with its results
(above, 79): thus, from Trpay-ya-ui we might have ºrpay
pºds, “a doing” (a), and we have really trpášis = ºrpāk-ois,
“a relative doing” (b), Tpayo-s = ºrpáyo-t, and Tpak-tds,
“done” (c), and by a combination of (a) and (c) we have
Tpāy-ua-t- and re-trpay-pe-vov, “done as the result of
doing.” This last combination may take in addition (b),
as in dip-ſo-vi-a, ap-uo-vi-kós, in which case the quality con
nected with, or produced by the result is expressed, as well
as the result itself: for dp-uds= “a joining;” ap-uo-vſ-a =
“the quality produced by such a joining”; ap-uo-vi-kos =
“the sort of person who possesses such a quality.”
f. When (b) is combined with (a), the relative word
becomes subjective, as &\to-ais, “a taking ;” dAaj-al-uos
traidv, “a song of triumph on taking.” When we have
(b+c), the relative word becomes objective, as pâs = p&For, “that which is of the quality of light;" kaAAo-ort-wn,
“that which is of the quality of beauty” (nearly equal to
káAAo-s = käAAo-T); dan0--vds, “made up of that which
is true;” to 6-tn-s = to 6-Tya-T-s, “equality;” dx0m-èav,
“annoyance,” i.e. that which is of the quality of grief or
pain. When Ti- is combined with p-, we have only a qua
litative extension of the meaning of ti-; compare oiki-twp
with olkm-tris; co-trip, 64-tepa with 86-rms, &c.
We have the combination T + p (sometimes 6p) in
the comparatives of adjectives, and in words signifying in
strumentality, or a thing carried farther in a certain direc
tion; r + A is more rarely used in the same sense; compare
roqa-Tepos, “farther in wisdom;” £dpa-6pov, “farther in
depth;” exé-TAn, “the handle at the end of the plough,”
The combination t + T, marks the superlative, as a opa-ta
tos, “first of a series of wise men.” The combination v-T,
which is the third person-ending of the plural verb, is of
constant use in the formation of active participles: it implies
collection: compare tras = ºrā-vt-s with qua-mtus, and the
names of towns, such as Tapas = Tapa-vts with Tare
7twº.
362 I. Of these formations the following may be
considered as appropriated to derivatives of verbal origin:
(l) all those in -uos, -um (a); (2) those in -ois, -oria, -eta,
160
DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION,
-rus, -ris, and some of those in -us (b); (3) those in-ros,
-vos, -ua-t, -ué-vos, -utov, -uovn, -tmp, -top, -tepa ; many
in -v-r-s, and some of those in -tns (c, e, g, f).
363 II. The following may be referred to derivatives
from nouns: (1) substantives from adjectives, those in -ía
(b), -ºrnt-s (f), -ov-vn (f); (2) substantives from substan
tives, some of those in -rms (f): -ēns, -8-s (f); -itov (f);
together with diminutives -lov, -taxos, -vaos, -ičevs. (3) Ad
jectives from substantives: those in -tos, (-aios, -eios, -olos,
-ºpos), -eos, -i-kos, -i-vos, -īvos, -avos, -nvos, -pos, -Aeos,
-v-T-c.
364
Thus we have,
I. (1) &er-uds from déw; Yveſ-un from yi-yve-orkw; (2)
rpášis from Tpda'aw; bu-ria from 640 ; traič-eta from
tratê-eſto ; trpak-Tüs from Tpdoorw; ºpa-tis from pnuſ; 7pa
qe-Js from Ypſipw; (3) Ypar-tos from Ypſipo; a Tv-vos
from otvyéto; pAéy-fia-t, ‘pxeyd-uévos, ©Aey-uovni, from
q'Aéyw; Aet-utov from Aetºw; ow-trip, re-relpa, from gº-Ço;
fini-top from eipnka (root ºpe-); tra-trip, d-ºrd-top from
ºrda (above, 22); Túrrow = rſt-to-virs from Túrro; Kpi-tiis
from kpt-vo.
365 II. (1) pix-ta from p(\os, lord-rms from toos, Čikato
-oriivn from 8tratos; (2) trird-rms from ſºrros, kpov-ſens,
kpov-ſtov from kpóvos, &eorºróri-3-s from ēeatrörns, traíð-tov,
Tatē-to-kn, from traſs, 'Epaſt-vXos from "Epws, der-3ews from
derós. (3) dyop-aios from dyopa, Tarptos, "ratpºor, ratp:kos from Tarip, dvěpeſos from durip, #5A-lvos from {\ov,
Tapavrivos from Tapas, pºove-pds from pôāvos, 6apora-Aéos
from 0áporos, xapteis - xapte-vts from xapus.
§ IV. (B) Derivative Verbs.
366
In order to see what verbs are derivative and
what are primitive, it is necessary to classify all verbs ac
cording to the genesis or origination of their crude forms.
The conjugations given above are arranged according to the
characteristic of the root, and are designed for the conveni
ence of the learner.
The true classification, however, de
pends upon the contrivances adopted for the formation of
a present tense from the root as exhibited in the second
aorist.
DERIVATION AND
COMPOSITION.
161
367 I. Primitive verbs, or those which are not formed
from existing nouns.
The simplest and oldest verbs are those which are formed
from a monosyllabic root, which is prefixed to the person
endings (a) without any change, as el-uí = €o-uí; (b) with
guna = a, as pn-pit = pa-ya-uſ; (c) with reduplication with
out guna, as tri-Trø (root ret-); (d) with reduplication
and guna, as rí-0m-u = ri-0é-ya-ut ; (e) with an hyperthe
sis of guna (above, 145) as greiſła for gríð-yw, peſºw for
Øvºyo, Lat. fugio.
The vocalization shews that even such verbs as Aéyw and
orpéque must have been formed by some such affix as -ia
(above, 20).
Another large class forms the present by adding-la to the
root, the characteristic of which is generally lost in a conse
quent assimilation. Thus, from Trpay-yo, we have Tpda'aw,
&c. (above, 103).
Another class adds v to the root, as in Téu-v-w.
This is
sometimes accompanied by an euphonious ectasis of a labial
or guttural in the root, as in Aa-p-ſ3d-vo, Tv-Y-X4-vo, which
is perhaps due to hyperthesis (above, 320). The same
element sometimes appears as T, after labials and guttu
rals: thus we have riºr-t-w root TvT-, kpúr-t-w root ºpuſ?-,
Tik-T-to root rek-.
In some verbs we have a combination
of v and F in this strengthening adjunct: this appears
as vn = v-ta in 3dp-wn-ul, Tría-wn-ul, &c.; as vu in Čeſy
w-ui, where there is also a guna or expression of ia, indi
cated in such cases as a Bé-v-vvut by a reduplication of the
v. The vowel in v-, vv- is often transposed before the liquid.
Thus we have patva, Aajvo from the roots ºpa- and Aa-.
368 II. Secondary verbs, or those which are obviously
derived from existing nouns or verbs.
The pronominal affixes used to form derivatives of this
class are the same in kind with those used to strengthen
the present in the other case.
The terminations most in use for this purpose are the
following: -ów, -é, -ów, -áčo, -íčo, -toro, -eiſw, -aſva,
-ávo ; as Tu-4-0 from Turi, pia-4-0 from pixos, uto-0-6-0,
from uta:00s, a kev-a-úo from a kevn, wou-í-ào from vapos,
7am-t-gro from yduos, traid-et-to from traſs (traß-s), ornu
ai-vo from anna, ev6-4-vo from ev60s: the termination -é6,
D. G. G.
|1
162
DERIVATION
AND
COMPOSITION.
-º-00, seems to be appropriated to derivatives from simple
verbs; for instance, pxey-é-0w from pxéyw, pów-W-0w from
ºpôtvo, where it will be observed that the e represents ,
which often follows y, and v belongs to the vu of the primi
tive form. The termination t-ork-, -v-ork- is inserted between
strengthening pronominal adjunct v in the
verbs opx-to k-d-vio, dA-v-ork-d-vo, &c. There are some verbs
the root and the
in -àw, -ew, which must not be classed among these secon
dary derivatives. Such are ëpd-w = &pg|Fw, which must be
connected with pat- = 0epair-: , cf. patrérns: kaxéo =
kaAéFw, connected with KAéFos, k\ſw, &c.
§ W. (2)
Composition.
369 A compound is an union of two or more words of
which the last only is inflected, the preceding words being
in a dependent or construct state, and having consequently
lost all inflexion. But if an uninflected word is placed first,
this sort of fusion cannot, strictly speaking, take place: and
we then have juasta-position (trapdbeoris) instead of composi
tion (orévôeoris). It may happen that an oblique case of a
noun will be prefixed as the representative of some special
construction, in which case its flexion is only partially, if
at all, affected.
The Greek Grammarians call the real or
organic compounds synthetic, and the others parathetic.
§ VI. A. Synthetic Compounds.
370 Synthetic compounds are made up (a) of a substan
tive preceded by its epithet; (b) of a noun preceded by a
dependent case; (c) of a verb governing a case, and then,
whether the verb precedes or follows, it is represented by a
derivative in ori- or 1-.
371 The flexion of the first part of the compound is
necessarily affected by the synthesis. The latter part may
retain its original declension. With regard to the altera
tions of the first part, we may observe that the usual link
of connexion in (a) and (b) is the medium vowel o, elided
before a vowel: an original v, will generally keep its
place before consonants. The last part of a compound affix
will generally evanesce, especially in the case of ua-r, as in
arou’-axyta for atopataAyía. In the case of (c), the of
or is often elided, and the of a represented by e or even o.
The verbal affix often vanishes altogether, when the verbal
DERIVATION AND
163
COMPOSITION.
is the final part of the compound. In fact, the love of
abbreviation in these long forms is so great, that a com
pound adjective in los has very rarely a feminine in n = ta.
372 a. Second part unchanged: "roxy-trovs, op66
pavris ; both parts changed: ev64-bikos from eiðeſa Číkm.
b. Second part unchanged: Meyaxó-trous, vouc-‘púaš;
both parts changed: gianpo-uſtwp from oićripov unitnp (22);
f
orrop'-axyía for a rouaros &Ayos.
373
C.
yerbal preceding: dpxé-saxos, dpx-0éºpos,
Av-ori-trovos, pºly-aortis, TAríč-irros, @ép-aortis, puyd-ua
os, as from dpxn kaków, dpxn bewpías, Aſois tróvov, givis
doºrſèos, TAñāis frtov, popa doºrſèos, pvyn payms.
Verbal following: ëpyö-Aaſºos, Aoyo-troids, troAv-ºpdyos,
tratē-ăyoyos, ixóvo-ºrgans, as from épywv Aaffii, Adywv troin
orus, troXAtov paymoris, traičov dywyn, iX0Vuv traßmats. From
these compounds new verbs in -éo may be formed, as from
A100-£36Ao-s we have A100-30Aé-w; from auto-któvo-s, auto
kºrové-w.
374 The peculiar forms Aetto-tašía, pauvé-unpus seem
to be the nearest approximation to the parathetic compound
that a synthesis of verb and noun is capable of making.
375
When the verbal follows, a difference of accentu
ation occasionally indicates whether it is to be taken in an
active or in a passive sense. Thus Auðo-ſ36Ao-s means “a
person who pelts with stones;” A106-3oxos, “one who is
pelted;” puntpo-któvos would refer to Orestes the matricide,
untpá-ktovoi to the children of Medea, who were slain by
their mother. By a peculiar refinement, words com
pounded with épyo- are oxyton when they signify a bodily
action, but proparoxyton, or, by contraction, properispo
mena, when they denote merely an operation or habit of
the mind: compare A10ovpyós, “a stone-mason,” with ta
voºpyos, “an unscrupulous rogue.”
376 When a synthetic compound is considered as an
individual word without reference to its origin, it is liable
to euphonic changes which may be inconsisent with the
rules for the developement of its separate parts. These
changes consist chiefly in doubling liquids, as in iodpporos,
'Irtröðappos (105); or in lengthening a vowel, as in duri
pifluos, ovvoivvuos.
-
11–2
164
DERIVATION
AND COMPOSITION.
§ VII. B. Parathetic Compounds.
377. Parathetic compounds, when the first part is an
uninflected particle, are in most cases capable of thesis or
separation, although, while the separable parts are in contact,
they are liable to the same affections as the consecutive
syllables of one and the same word; for example, the v in
év and ɺv, is assimilated according to 101 a, omitted ac
cording to 93, or specially retained according to 95, Obs.
This arises from the peculiar mobility of the letter v, which
is observable also in the case referred to in 367.
This is
particularly observable when a preposition is prefixed to a
verb, and this separability is also shewn by the place of the
augment (above, 313). But the same holds with regard to
other particles and combinations of words, as ovkéri, rovov,
evayyexos, which may all exist in separate parts. The in
separable particles d-, av-, implying negation or intensity,
and 8vo- denoting difficulty, adversity, are never divided
from the words with which they are connected, and,
although an augment is placed in the first syllable of the
verb in composition when it begins with a vowel, the syl
labic augment precedes the whole compound: compare
8vonpéotovu, eunpyérovv, with éðvariºxovv, nutſkovv (315).
The student must bear in mind, that, as a general rule,
there is no parathetic compound of a verb with a-, ed, or
8vo-, but only derivatives in -e-w from compounds of nouns
with these particles, in the same way as verbs are derived
from other compounds, whether parathetic or synthetic:
compare et roleſ, ovv-épêew with evepyetéw, ovvepyéw, from
evepyérns and givepyos.
378 When the first part of a parathetic compound is
an oblique case of an inflected word, it is either prefixed
separably and unchanged: as in A679 Taxatós (AEschyl.
Agam. 1198; Soph. CEd. T. 1395), kvvvdorornua, vavorikAw
tos, &c.; or it passes by a series of changes into a regular
synthesis: compare &ucas-tróAos = 6tkas toxéov, with olovo
TóAos; door-tropos for dºg-trópos = €v 63% ropewópevos, with
Tovtd-tropos; beds-boros = 0eois-àorós, with 666&wpos, 0ed
ãotos; cakes-ta\ds = ordkos TáAAww, with £iqoqºpos.
PART W.
SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION.
CHAPTER I.
ON THE PROPOSITION IN GENERAL, AND ON
THE SUBJECT IN PARTICULAR.
§ I. General Considerations.
379 Construction or Syntaa (Xºvračis) gives the
rules for expressing and connecting Sentences.
380 A Sentence expressed in words is called a Propo
sition or Enunciation.
381 Every Proposition consists of three parts—Sub
ject, Copula, and Predicate. Thus, if we say: 86eds éotiv
dyabós, “God is good,” d eeds is the subject or thing
spoken of; dyabós is the Predicate, or that which is said
of the subject; and éotiv is the Copula or substantive verb,
which always connects the subject with the predicate, with
or without the negative particle ou, according as the subject
and predicate disagree or agree.
a. In the Greek language the copula is very often im
plied in some form of a finite verb, which contains the pre
dicate also; thus we say: 6 fºrtros Tpéxei = 0 fºrtos éat.
Tpéxov, “the horse is running.”
b. And even the subject may be contained in this ver
bal, form; for Tpéxei may be equivalent to 6 &tiva èar
Tpéxov, “a certain person is running;” and oraxt{ét may
express d oraxtriyktris éoºri oraAríčov, “the trumpeter is
sounding his horn.”
c. Impersonal verbs explain this usage by the apposi
tion of a sentence which follows; thus, Xpri are uſuveiv
Tooro—to pituvely ore—xpetºv čotiv; or “it is fitting that
you remain” =“that you remain is fitting.”
d. This explains the fact that the neuter plural, which
is strictly speaking an objective case (above, 156), is con
166
SYNTAx OR CONSTRUCTION.
strued with a singular verb; so that ra. Öa Tpéxel, “the
animals are running," really means: “as to the animals, it
runs,” or “there is running,” (curritur quoad animalia).
382 In Logic, propositions are divided according to
their substance, their quality, and their quantity. Syntax
does not concern itself with the latter divisions, and still
less with the modern distinction of synthetical and analyti
cal propositions; but its rules are dependent on the division
of propositions according to substance, that is, according as
they are categorical or hypothetical.
383 Categorical propositions contain a direct assertion,
or predication, either unqualified, as 66eós écririy dyadés,
“God is good;" or qualified, as 6 &v0pwros forws duapravel,
“the man perhaps is in error.” The former are called
pure, the latter modal or adverbial categoricals. All words
and sentences, which thus qualify the main predication, are
of the nature of adverbs or secondary predicates (#36).
384 The Hypothetical proposition consists of two
sentences. If it is a conditional hypothetical, one of these
is a categorical proposition, and the other a sentence de
endent upon it: as et ri yet, 8tóworiv, “if he has anything,
e gives.” If it is a disjunctive hypothetical, both mem
bers are categorical, but they are rendered hypothetical by
the conjunction which connects them, as h exei fi oux éxel,
“he either has or has not,” and if the conditional is then
applied, this inference follows: # 3:30aw # ou 3:30aw, “he
either gives or does not give.”
385 These differences refer only to the predicate. The
subject is regulated by the same laws in every kind of pro
position. Consequently, the methodical discussion of syn
tactical rules should begin with (I) those which concern
the subject; and should then consider in their order (II)
the categorical proposition, and under this head the differ
ent kinds of predicates: (III) the hypothetical proposition,
and under this head the doctrine of the moods, negatives,
and co-ordinate sentences.
§ II. The Article and Relative.
386 The chief instrument of Greek Syntax is the
demonstrative pronoun ös. When it appears in the form
às, -i, 3, it is called the relative pronoun; when in the form
SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION.
167
c (3s), i, ºrd, it is termed the distinctive pronoun or definite
article (above, 229, 4, and 5).
387 If we compare the inflexions of 8s, j, 6, and 0, j,
ºrd (above, 237,238), we shall observe that the latter, in
all the objective cases, loses its connexion with the second
element, and takes, in its stead, the third element.
This
points to the fact, that, whereas the relative pronoun signi
fies here in all its cases, the distinctive pronoun expresses
this relation only in the nominative, masculine and femi
nine; while in the objective cases it expresses the opposed
relative there, and throughout its use corresponds to that of
the indicative pronouns, 36e, oùros, and ékeſvos, as opposed
to 8s, h, 3.
388 The distinctive pronoun is written 8s, j, Tó, when
it stands by itself, but it loses the nominative sign in the
masculine when it stands in apposition to a noun, or serves
the purpose of a definite article. This is best explained by
the converse practice in modern High German, in which we
write gut-er Mensch, “a good man; ” but de-r gute Mensch,
“the good man.”
389 . As marking the simple antecedent, the use of
d (ős), m, rd, is comparatively rare. Yet we have such
hrases as: 3rt to popauðv éotiv, ro yévout' &v (AEschyl.
1055).
390 Generally the Attic writers do not use 6 (8s), ti,
•rd, as a demonstrative, except when partition coupled with
diversity is implied; and then most frequently when the op
§.
position is marked by uév–8é; as Tów Toxeutov (or of troAé
atol) of uév č6aſuačov rá Yiyvöueva, of 8é éºdov, of 86 ovve
orkevd Covro ; or without the pév, when only one opposition is
referred to; as, Aſkos duvov číokev, 6 &é eis vadu katépuye.
In the oblique cases, we may join the opposed pronouns by
•re kat, or ?–7; as Zeus"rd re kai Ta véuet: and 7 roſaw ºf
roſs tróAepov aipeg flat uéyav.
391 When in this opposition between two subjects,
we refer not to a thing but to a person, it is customary to
substitute kal 6s, for 6 &é; as, kal 6s, drovoas Tavra, Éworew
aurov čk ºrns ºrd:#ews. And persons thus opposed are
coupled by kai; as, erićpknkev 6s kal 6s. In narrating a
dialogue,
3’ &s signifies, “ said he" (like the Latin inquit),
168
SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION.
In Demosth. de Corom. p. 248, we have as pèv—els ás 3é,
for ras uév–els ºrds &é.
392 Originally, no doubt, the relative pronoun was
nothing more than an emphatic repetition of this distinc
tive pronoun. Thus Homer wrote (Il. I. 125): da\dº ra
pév troAtwv éé Tpadouev, td &éðaotai, “the things we
sacked from the cities, these things have been divided.”
And this use of the demonstrative for the relative, which
was regularly adopted by the Ionians, was retained occasion
ally by the older Attic poets: as in AEschyl. Ag. 642: 31
TAfi udariyi, triv "Apns pi\eſ. But in the stricter Attic
Syntax, 6 (6s), i, td, like Öde, ouros, and ékeſvos, is opposed
to 3s., ii, 6, as its correlative or antecedent; and while the
latter, as relative pronoun, is limited in its application to
some sentence containing a finite verb, with which it is
intimately connected, the former, as a definite article, may
stand before any word or sentence, which is capable of per
forming the functions of subject or epithet, and may even
convert to this use the relative sentence itself.
393 That the student may see at the outset how en
tirely the proper understanding of Greek Syntax depends
upon the use of the relative and article, it may be convenient
to mention beforehand their various applications.
394 The article marks the subject as opposed to the
predicate.
395
When the relative sentence has a definite ante
cedent, it is equivalent to the sentence preceded by the
article. Thus d rountris is equally represented by d divöpw
tros, d rotov, and d div6pwros, Ös troueſ.
396 But if the antecedent is not definite, the relative
sentence is the dependent member of a hypothetical pro
position. And here the student will observe, that what
ever holds good of a relative pronoun is equally applicable
to an adverb or conjunction of relative origin. Thus, Šaris
wroteſ ravra, dyadds écririv = et ris troteſ raúra dyadds éotiv.
And m &tóworiv h où 3íčwortv = efre &ſdoorw eite ou 3:8waiv
stands on the same footing; for , like el, is a relative par
ticle.
397 The student will also observe, that the indefinite
antecedent is sometimes expressed without any effect on the
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
169
relative clause. Thus, in dvěpes re ka; tırırol, which means,
“where horses, there men,” re is an indefinite antecedent to
the relative kai; and in et ris Tavra rotoſn, dyados &vein,
which means, “as often as any one did these things, he
would so often be a good man,” the particle àv is the inde
finite antecedent to the relative ei.
§ III. Use of the Article Proper.
398 The chief employment of the definite article is to
distinguish the subject from the predicate; for, from the
nature of the case, the subject is considered to be somethin
definite, of which something general is predicated or denied.
399 If the subject is of itself sufficiently definite the
article may be omitted; as:
péyas 8e Bagwei's oux, 3rd roºrov kou%;
(Arist. Plut. 170.)
for here a particular “great king," i.e. the Shah of Persia,
is referred to: so that uéyas (3aoriNews is almost equivalent
to a proper name.
400 The article is necessarily omitted, if the subject,
though certain, is indefinite; as:
frtros éteke Aaytºv, “a certain mare (equa nescio qua)
brought forth a hare.”
yovri ris àpviv exe, “a woman, i.e. some one in par
ticular (mulier quardam), had a hen.”
401 The article is also omitted, if it is implied that the
subject and predicate are so intimately connected that either
may be predicated of the other; as
oux àpa orwpporávn év ein alous, (Plato, Charm. 161, A.)
i.e. “ orwg poorêvn and alòas would not appear to be iden
tical.”
402 All predicable and hypothetical words or sen
tences may be turned into subjects, or their epithets, by
prefixing the article to them; as:
a. Adjectives:
of dyado, eiºauovoval, “the good (men) are happy.”
b. Participles:
o riºttwy, “he who strikes.”
170
c.
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
Infinitives:
ró el rpárgely, “the-faring well," i.e. “Success,” or
“prosperity.”
d.
Adverbs:
-
of raxai, “the (men) of olden time—the then men.”
e. Cases of nouns without a preposition :
o Alós, “the (son) of Zeus.”
f. Cases of nouns with a preposition : , ,
of £ºv tº 6aorixeſ, “those with the king.”
g. A dependent sentence:
ri tph dipta aúrov dpeti, “the virtue he showed before he
came to the throne.”
h.
A conditional clause:
To fiv reforwaev Juás, “the alternative that we shall
persuade you.”
i.
A relative sentence:
oveev Tów Śora is aloxºvny éort pépovira, “none of all those
things which tend to shame.”
403 Hence, we may place between a substantive
and its article any words or phrases which may thus be
converted into subjects or epithets, and that too, if neces
sary, by repeated insertions; as:
n (((Töv ((td. (Tns ºrdNews) rpáyuata)) trpatrövtov)))
dperii, “the virtue of (((those who manage ((the affairs of
(the state.”
404 Consequently, whatever words or phrases have the
article prefixed, or stand between the article and its substan
tive, describe and define, i.e. they are epithets: and conversely,
if the article is prefixed to a substantive, and the adjectival
word or phrase, which agrees with it, neither has the
article prefixed nor stands between the article and substan
tive, that word or phrase is not an epithet, but a predicate.
Thus: of Nºevöeſs Adyot, or of Adyot of Wrevèeſs, means “the
false words or sayings;” and similarly in the oblique cases,
But in the following passages, Jrévêeſs is a predicate:
Either (A.) Primary, (below, 416), in of Aoyá, Jrévêeſ;
elorív, “the words are false.”
Or (B.) Secondary (below, 441), in of Adyo Nyevček
éAéxông av, “the words were spoken and they were
false’’=“the words which were spoken were false."
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
171
48%
Or (C.) Tertiary, (below,
in 3 pdvris rows Adyovs
Nºevèeſs Aéyet, “the prophet speaks words, and they
are false” =“the words, which the prophet speaks,
are false.”
§ IV. The Relative and its Attraction,
405 The relative may be either in the nominative case,
expressing the subject of the verb which follows it, or in
some oblique case, expressing the object of the verb. But
it always agrees with its antecedent in gender, number, and
person; as:
of rep £opew, ouro Tpoſëwnev (Thucyd. 1, 83).
406
To mark the fact, that the connexion between the
definite antecedent and the relative sentence is identical with
that between the definite article and the clause to which
it gives a fixed value, Greek syntax allows the relative to
agree with its antecedent in case also, if the antecedent is
in the genitive or dative, and the relative would other
wise appear in the accusative, thus making one objectice
relation suffice for both clauses; thus we find:
peračíčws aurº toº aftov ostep autos éxels, for 6trep.
ei, trporpépetal roſs pºols ofs àxel, for oils.
This usage is called the attraction of the relative into the
case of its antecedent.
407 If an antecedent demonstrative pronoun is affected
by a preposition, the antecedent may be omitted and the
preposition transferred to the attracted relative; as:
peretéutrero &AAo otpd revua Tpos º Tpdatev eixe, for
Tpos ékeive 6 rpdadev etxe.
Hence we have phrases, such as ouveka for roſtov čveka
3rt; duff &v for duri toºtov Šti, &c.
408 The phrase oios el, oiós écriv, is sometimes ab
sorbed by attraction into the antecedent clause, and becomes
a mere epithet; thus we have :
#papal oſov rod dwepés for épauai dvěpós rotoſtov oios ori, el.
And if an antecedent noun is wanting, oios is still placed
in the case of the antecedent with the article prefixed; as:
Toſs otols muſv rekai wuſu XaAerov i önuokparta, for
tolovros divöpáow oioſ écruev jueſs Te Kai wueſs.
172
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
For the omission of oiás ºr riv after rotooros, see below,597.
409
Sometimes the antecedent is attracted into the
case of the relative; as in Eurip. Orest. 1629:
'EAévnv učv ºv ord Śioxéral rpgöupos ºv
huaptes, dpyriv Mevexép Totovuevos,
#3' early, ºv dpār āv alôépos º
oreoworpevn re row flavova wrpos oréðev.
where we have a sample of both constructions.
410 This sort of inverse attraction is very common in
such phrases as:
riuqueruévot 6avuarta 3) &ra (Plato Symp. 220, A),
and 6avuagrós we meta-0mv Jºr' autov (Id. Phaed. 92, A).
So in demonstrative particles: 8mvat keiðev 86ev rep
#kel (Soph. (Ed. Col. 1227) for ketore 66ev.
411 We find the same and similar peculiarities in the
use of those correlative phrases which have emanated from
the direct interrogative: for as the relative answers to the
definitive sentence, so does the indirect to the direct question.
Thus ris écriv; would be answered by our oùa Borris écrir.
And from the intimate connexion between the interrogative
and the negative sentence, we find 6orris after the negative
owbels, as in oveets eativ Šaris ov, which may assume the
case of the correlative throughout, the verb écºr, being
omitted; thus:
N. ováels öorris oux àv troinorete raûra,
for ováeſs earriv Šartis ow.
G.
K. T. A.
ovoevos drov ou kareyexage,
for ovees iv 8 row ow. K. T. A.
and so on.
Compare this with interrogative sentences, such as
otegée àvtiva oux droarrigerðai (Thucyd. III, 34), for ris
éatív, Švriva oux oleate d.
412 A negative question often forms a mere paren
thesis, amounting to an exaggerative statement: thus we
have in Demosth. de Coron. p. 241: tí kaków oux traoxów
Tov, for rāv driovv kaków T. Hence, in Soph. Antig. 2,
the same force is conveyed by an indirect interrogative, for
droſov oux, kaków means, “every sort of evil.”
-
Similarly, we have a transition from the participial
SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION.
173
parenthesis ºri uadºv = “on what inducement,” (cf. r1
traflaiv =“on what compulsion”) to 3rt paſſav, in Plato
Apol. p. 36, B.
§ W.
General Cautions respecting the Relative and
its Antecedent.
413
The student must learn from the first to distin
guish between those usages, according to which the relative
or adjectival sentence is attracted into and absorbed by the
antecedent, and the converse practice according to which
the antecedent loses its power, and the relative passes over
into a primary predicate, and even into a secondary predi
cate, or adverbial phrase. Thus, we have have seen above,
that the qualitative relative oios may become by attraction
a mere epithet (408), and oiás or may be omitted between
its antecedent rotooros and another relative (below, 597).
But conversely, by an idiom which has passed from the
Ionic into the Attic dialect, oids re, with an omission of its
antecedent roſós re, becomes a mere predicate, equivalent to
&vvarós; for oiós re eluſ = 8vvatós elul-ćivapai (below,596).
Or, if rotooros, Togouros remains as the predicate, dare is
substituted for oiós re with either the finite verb or the
infinitive, so that the relative becomes a mere adverbial
adjunct, or secondary predicate. The apparent contradic
tion in these cases arises from the fact, that the pronouns
totooros, roorooros, &c., however apparently definite, are,
as expressing a kind or class, and not individuals, really
indefinite antecedents. So that, in fact, the participle
without the article may express this sort of consecutive or
illative sentence. For éxwv = totoutos date éxeiv, may be
expressed in Latin by qui habeat, or talis ut habeat, and we
shall see that the prolepsis, or tertiary predicate in the
oblique case, may approximate to this (below, 494). And
here the English language is liable to a confusion; for
“who has” is used indifferently for qui habet and qui habeat:
but this will not justify the teacher who allows his pupils
to suppose that Greek syntax permits the same laxity.
CHAPTER II.
ON THE CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION, AND ON
THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF PREDICATES.
§ I. General Principles.
414 IN the categorical proposition there are, as has
been already mentioned (above, 404), three kinds of predi
cates.
(A) Primary, when there is nothing between the sub
ject and predicate, except the copula, either expressed or
implied.
(B) Secondary, when the predicate is connected with the
subject through a verb which already contains a primary
predicate.
(C) Tertiary, when in the second case there is also a
TpóAnvis, or anticipation of a distinct predication of some
thing additional.
415 (A) Primary predicates are the following: (a)
Attributive nouns, whether substantives or adjectives.
(b) Participles. (c) Werbs of the indicative mood.
(B) Secondary predicates are the following: (a) Ad
verbs. (b) Cases of nouns and participles (1) without, or
(2) with prepositions.
(C) Tertiary predicates are oblique cases of substantives,
adjectives, and participles.
-
§ II. A. Primary Predicates. (a) Nouns.
416 When a noun is predicated directly, the copula is
either a verb expressing easistence, subsistence, &c., such as
eiut, Yiyvouai, Éqvv, kvpio, Téaw, Jºrdpxw; or a verb express
ing appellation, designation, nomination, appointment, &c.,
such as kaxoSuai, drovo, KAww, ovoudſonal, Totovua, kafli
a tauai, diročeſkvvual, euptakouai, vouſouai. Verbs of the
former class are usually added in the infinitive to verbs of
appearing, seeming, &c., such as paivopal, 8okó, which may
also serve as copula without any such addition.
(a) 0 €eós écriv dyadós.
(b) d €ptov ćpaatns kaxeſrat.
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
175
(c) to 8é rqi kmp paiveral elva.
(d) Taºta ačuvarov čqavn.
Regularly, these primary predicates agree with their sub
jects in gender and number; except that in a general sen
tence a neuter adjective may be predicated in the singular of
a masculine or feminine subject, whether singular or plural,
as in the last example, and in such phrases as évadpearov
ou Lyooroul/Tes.
417 As the predicate is necessarily a general term, it
is generally distinguished from the subject by the omission
of the article; as :
d 2wkpárns nu ävöpwros.
6 áv0pwtos jv goq6s.
See however above, 401.
418 When the predication is thus distinct, the copula
is often omitted; as:
Aévkos G frtros, “the horse is white.”
419 The copula is very frequently omitted, when the
following qualitative phrases form the predicate: ppoſeos,
€roſuos, figolov, XaAeróv, diffios, ovvards, oiós re, dēśvaros,
dvdykm, xpetºv, 6éus, ºpa, &c.; as:
qpovča ºrdaretariuata (Soph. GEd. Col. 660).
They are often predicated in the neuter plural; as:
XaAerd eart replyfyveg flat (Herod. Ix, 2).
§ III. Primary Predicates. (b) Participles.
420. The active participles are not very often used as
primary predicates, for the tenses of the verb will generally
express our meaning with sufficient definiteness: conse
quently, d ſtros Tpéxes will be more common than 6 ſºrºros
éar Tpéxov, which is equivalent to it (above, 381). But
we find such phrases as: 680s i öpwpévn fiv dyovoa diva.
(Xen. Anab. IV, 3, § 5), and in an emphatic passage we
might say: 6 div0pwards égºtiv ću tvéov (cf. Hºschyl. Agam.
629), or: G traſs éar Travt' dyvotov kai travt’ atroſłAérov
eis rov ŠtědorkaAov (cf. Plato, Phaed. p. 239, B), or, in the
perfect, d Xpnopios éotal dečopka's (AEsch. Ag. 1150).
421. The passive participle in -uévos is very often pre
dicated; indeed, as we have seen above (333), it is a sub
176
SYNTAX
OR CONSTRUCTION.
stitute for certain tense forms: and for the sake of emphasis,
we have such phrases as:
käpt' dropowows norða yeypappévos (AEschyl. Ag. 733).
422 The participial forms in -tês and -réos are also
very often used as primary predicates; thus:
rooro ou
pnzán
éott uot.
darknréa doºrſ orou ri aperri.
423
The verbal in -réos is often used as a mere infini
tive, without inflexion, and governing the case of the noun,
which in the direct predication would have been the sub
ject. Here, the dative is taken in immediate connexion
with the substantive verb, and éortſ uot, €ortſ orot, “there
is to me,” “there is to thee,” &c., mean, “I have,” “thou
hast” (to do so and so), i.e. “it is right or necessary for
me and thee to do so.” Thus, for darkn'téa Čortſ-rot ridpetii,
“virtue is-for- thee to cultivate,” we may write darknrēov
Garſ-got triv dperſiv, “it-is-for- thee to cultivate virtue."
i.e. “thou must cultivate virtue;” and so, if the verb implied
governs another case; as: étributinteóv čart-oro Tris dperms
(See below, 523).
424 Just in the same way, we have 8tkatóv Čotiv ćué
raúra roleſv by the side of Čikatós elut raora troueiv;
whence we have the negatives et un dötko Ye, or dºukoinv
pévr' év et uri, i.e. “I ought to do so.” Similarly, we
have &#16v čort, onxów éotiv ćué, K. T. A. by the side of
d£iós elut, ºn Nós eiuſ. And as 8e7 = 8éov čari is equivalent
to 8traigv čar, we may have both troXAoû 3éw rooro roleſv
and troAAoû bef piè Tooro roleſv.
425 As the verbals in -Tös and -reds are of a quali
tative or adverbial nature, like the adjectives mentioned
above (419), we often find them predicated in the neuter
plural ; as:
ovyyvägt öv iv to row8 pagónvas Aéxovs.
(Eurip. Med. 491).
ovvektroté' éott got kal Triv rpſ)a.
(Aristoph. Plut. 1085).
426
For this reason, and because the stress in the
combination éari uot, €atí got, as expressing the subject,
falls upon the dative of the pronoun, the substantive verb
SYNTAX
177
OR CONSTRUCTION.
is often omitted, and sometimes when the subject is clear,
the pronoun also is wanting; thus we may have :
yvvaikos ovoapitos morantéa (Soph. Antig. 678),
for oveauſos 8e7 muás mooraaffat yuvaikos.
427 We observe this in other combinations of écriri
with the dative; thus, in Homer, Il. xv.1, 159:
Tāow & Tapiov aſpati polvov,
Trāoriv includes the subject and copula—“all had their
mouths gory with blood.”
428 In the emphatic predication of the active parti
ciple we occasionally find an omission of the copula: thus
in Æschyl. Agam. 280, we have reiſsm TapayyetMaora for
mv T. But this cannot take place in a conditional sentence.
Apparent instances to the contrary are corrupt.
-
§ IV.
Primary Predicates. (c) Tenses of the
Finite Verb.
429 As every verb has reference to action, and all
action must take place in time, whatever is predicated by a
verb is a predication of tense.
430 A predication of tense has reference either to the
time of speaking, or to some other point of time which
-
must be defined.
In the former case the tense is called
definite or determinate; in the latter, indefinite or indeter
minate.
431 In Greek the following are the definite tenses,
which relate to the time of speaking.
The present, which expresses simultaneity, i.e.
quod significat rem geri eo ipso tempore, quo loquimur.
The future, which expresses posteriority, i.e.
quod significat fore, ut res geratur post id tempus, quo
loquimur.
The perfect, which expresses anteriority, i.e.
quod significat, rem gestam fuisse ante id tempus, quo
loquimur.
Thus:
Ypdqw, “I write, or am writing," i.e. “now, at the mo
ment of speaking.”
ypgvw, “I shall write,” i.e. “at some time after the
moment of speaking.”
D. G. G.
12
178
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
yéºpaqa, “I have written,” i.e. “at some time before the
moment of speaking.”
432 The following are the indefinite tenses, which re
late to some time specially defined.
The imperfect, which expresses simultaneity, i.e.
quod significat rem geri aliquo tempore, de quo loqui
mur.
The aorist, which expresses posteriority, i.e.
quod significat fore ut resgeratur, post aliquod tempus,
de quo loquimur.
The plu-perfect, which expresses anteriority, i.e.
quod significat, rem gestam fuisse ante aliquod tempus,
de quo loquimur.
Thus:
gypaqov, “I was writing,” i.e. “at some specified time.”
gypava, “I wrote,” i.e. “after some specified time.”
gyeypdqew, “I had written,” i.e. “before some specified
time.”
433 In all these cases, the indeterminate tenses are
derived from the determinate : so that the imperfect ex
presses continuous action, like the present, and the aorist
contains the adjunct or-, by which the future expresses time
to come, as well as the augment, which expresses past time.
We have seen (above, 289) that there was an original form
of most Greek verbs, which expressed only single acts, and
which, as it occurs only in an augmented or past tense, is
called the 2d aorist.
Now we find that this aorist, as
well as the regular indeterminate tense called the first
aorist, when they are used in any mood except the indica
tive, denote single acts or transient time: and the first
aorist conveys this meaning occasionally even in the indica
tive. Thus, if we use the imperative aorist Ypdvov, we
prescribe a single act of writing, and Attic usage obliges us
to employ the present imperative pin k\érre, to prohibit
stealing in general, and the aorist subjunctive un KAéºns, to
prohibit a single act of theft. The true signification of the
aorist in these usages is particularly apparent in the cases,
where it is said to be employed for the present indicative,
but where it really denotes that something followed a given
event, and is itself completed and done with : so that no
SYNTAX
OR
179
CONSTRUCTION,
thing farther need be said on the subject. Here the singleness
and transient nature of the act is manifest: it is included
between the previous event, to which it refers, and its own
completion, which is represented as immediate. The verb
#vera and its compounds are very frequently used in this
way to denote the dismissal with approbation of something
which has been said or done: e.g. in Eurip. Troad. 53:
ërńvea' dpyds riºrſovs, pépo be gol
koivous égavtſi 't' is pegow Advows, &vač.
i. e. “I like your placability—I received with assent and
approbation your gentle words, as they fell from you; but
enough of that. I have a proposal to make.” Cf. Soph.
Ajaw, 536. Phil. 1434. Eurip. Med. 223, 708. Alcest.
1097. Iph. Taur. 1025. Iph. Aul. 657. Herc. Fur.
1237.
-
434 The perfects of intransitive verbs denote the state
or condition which is consequent upon an action. Whether,
therefore, they retain their original forms or receive new
inflexions, they become present tenses, and may have their
own futures, as well of the active as of the middle inflex
ion; thus:
6vifaxw, “I am dying;” flavopual, “I shall die;” réðvnka,
“I am dead;" hence Teflunkw, id.; Teóvričopal, or reflvñºw,
“I shall be dead.”
Similarly, if the present is active, as
farmui, “I am placing;” ornka, “I have been placed;”
or “I stand;” arričw, éatričouai, “I shall stand;" and in
the same way, perhaps the well-known verb fixio, adsum,
“I am come,” has been formed. (See above, 319, 352.)
435 This rule is particularly applicable to perfects of
a passive form: as
uuvijakw, “I am reminding;” pleuvnual, “I have been
reminded;” i.e. “I remember;” fut. peplungouai, “I shall
remember.”
ºpápo,
“I am writing,”
“I .am
being writ;
ten;"
ypapricouai,
“I shallºpépoua,
be written;
YéYpapuai,
“I
have been written,” i.e. “I stand or remain written;” Ye
ºpds/ouai, “I shall stand or remain written ;” as in the
following
ollowing example:
p
12–2
180
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
Meteyypaqrigeral,
dAA’ ºrtep ºv to Tparov ćyyeypdveral
(Aristoph. Equites, 1371):
i.e. “no one shall be transferred by private interest to
another catalogue, but as he was at first enrolled, so shall
ouces kard arovods
he remain inscribed.”
§ W. B. Secondary Predicates. (a) Adverbs.
436 The name of the adverb (151) implies, that it is
intimately connected with some verb, which contains a pri
mary predication ; and it may be said, that all secondary
predications are adverbial words and sentences (383).
437 We have seen above (260), that adverbs, etymo
logically considered, are cases of nouns, pronouns, or adjec
tives, which express the time, place, causes, form or manner
of an action.
438 The only difference, therefore, between the adverbs
and other secondary predicates consists in this, that while the
adverbs signify general affections, the cases of nouns predi
cate specially some secondary relation. Thus we may say,
specially:
étréoriue. Th Xtraptºn, or év Aakečaſuovº,
or generally:
étrečníuel Keſ.
And we may say, with reference to a person's general state,
ëxel Kaxtos, bene se habet, “he is well,” or we may append
a particular reference, éxel Kaxtos to a toua, or row ordinaros,
bene se habet quoad corpus, “he is well in his body.”
In fact, the use of a verb with an adverb, as well as with
a case, is a degree less definite than the employment of two
cases with the verb. Thus, if we say, Tataorget fid/334), “he
strikes, and a stick is the instrument,” we add one particular;
if we say, traºrdorget to Xupas, “he strikes, and his manner
of striking is violent,” we add another particular: but we
may say, Tatarget laxupés fid/36%, “he strikes violently
with a stick;" and we may add to this an accusative case
expressing the object: Tataoget toxupés fid/364 Tov čvow:
we have then three adjuncts to the primary predication,
SYNTAX OR
CONSTRUCTION.
181
“ he is striking:” i.e. “the manner is violent, the stick is
the instrument, the ass is the object of his striking.”
439 The relative sentence, with an indefinite antece
dent, is of an adverbial nature. For it is an equally
adverbial predication to say generally: “I will go to
London conditionally,” and to say, more distinctly, “I will
go to London, if you will accompany me;" i.e. condi
tionally, on your accompanying me.
§ VI. Secondary Predicates. (b) Cases of Nouns.
440 . As the Greek language is in an etymological, as
well as in a syntactical state, it expresses the relations of
case, both by inflexions, and by an apposition of those
inflexions to certain pronominal adverbs called prepositions.
The preposition, as an adverb, belongs to the first class of
secondary Predicates: but as the special meanings of the
prepositions depend on the cases with which they are used,
we must consider, in the first instance, the syntax of the
cases themselves.
§ VII. (a)
The Nominative.
441 We have seen that the nominative regularly desig
nates the subject, and that it is predicated directly through
certain verbs, which serve as copula. As the nominative
cannot represent the object of the verb, it is clear that the
words, capable of employment as secondary predicates in
the nominative, are those which are adapted for the expres
sion of the adverbial relations of time, place, manner, degree,
&c. These are, in the first place, participles, as temporal
predicates; next, adjectives and pronouns as predicates of
place and manner; and, finally, those nouns which are by
their nature categorical. In general, those words, which
appear as tertiary predicates in the oblique cases, are best
suited for secondary predication in the nominative.
442 The following examples will explain this usage :
(a) Participles as predicates of time:
yeXdoras navyń pm (Plat. Phaed. 101 B.), “he laughed
gently and said,” i.e. at the same time; 8te 7A0ev ćyov autº
Ta rapa row ovuudyov 8topa (Xen. OEcon. 4, § 20), which
Cicero renders (Cato, 17, § 59): quum cenisset ad eum eique
182
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
dona a sociis attulisset. We should say indifferently, “he
came and brought,” i.e. at the same time, or “he brought
with him.”
(b) Adjectives as predicates of place or manner.
We have them both in Soph. Ajaw, 594 sqq. :
tº k\ewd Saxapuſs, or uév trov
vaſets dATAayktos evöatutov
Tāoriv reptºpavtos alet,
where k\elvd. is the epithet, and dAirAaykros the local pre
dicate, whereas eveatuov and trepiq'avtos are predicates of
manner: “Thou, O glorious Salamis, dwellest in the midst
of the breakers ever happy and glorious.” These predicates
of manner are often best rendered by a primary predicate,
as: “Thou art happy and glorious, where thou dwellest.”
Thucyd. III, 56: étrépyeafle &eivoſ, “You are formidable,
when you attack.” Sometimes this predicate expresses the
cause of the main predication; as in Soph. Antig. 941:
Čečx0n dài XoAos traſs 6 Apvdivºros, “he was bound, because
he was so keen in his wrath.” Id. Trach. 936:
kdvraj0' 0 traſs 8wortnyos our' dèvpudrov
éAeſtre+ ow8év,
“the boy, like a miserable creature as he was,” or, “for he
was a miserable creature.”
When the Greeks wish to ex
press very strongly this mixture of the manner and cause,
they add the mere adverb to the adjective; thus:
m kakos kakios tapmael vuktos ojk v muépg
(Eurip. Troad. 448),
“since you are a base wretch, you shall be buried in a base
manner.”
dy' tº 0ſ)arep Štos to kavoov kaAri kaA6s ofreis
(Aristoph. Ach. 253),
“as you are a pretty lass, bear the basket prettily.”
The Latin writers imitate this idiom ; thus Virgil. Æneid
v, 447:
Ipse gravis, graviterque ad terram pondere vasto
Concidit.
443 There is often a kind of prolepsis in these adverb
ial adjectives, i.e. they express the effect of the main verb.
Thus we have, Soph. Aj, 945:
SYNTAX
w
-
v
OR
183
CONSTIRUCTION.
*
r
r
-
Téðvnkev n ketvous YAvkvs,
euot trºpos
autº be reptwds,
i.e. “the effect of his death was grief to me and joy to his
enemies, but to himself it brought pleasure.”
So Eurip. Hippol. 796:
w
-
-
r
-
w
-
r
Avrnpos muſv toward’ d’v čkAttrol
~
*
douous.
Thucyd. III, 23:
-
r
kpwaraNAos étretrifye.
ou
r
£3é/3atos
-
e in
-
auri.
444 (c) Nouns used in a sort of apposition, which
really involves the main category of the sentence. Thus,
when we say (Hom. Il. II, 673):
Nupeds, Ös káAAirtos dump ºrd "IAlov madev,
the main point asserted of Nireus is not his having gone to
Troy, but his having been the handsomest man among
those who went thither.
We have an instructive instance
of this mode of predication, in connexion with the predi
cates of time, place, and manner, in Soph. (Ed. Col. 718:
a 3’ eurpetuos ékiraya' d'Aſa
Xepal trapatropéva TAdºra
6packet røv čkatoutdöwv
Nmp;fºwv dróAov6os,
where the construction is: rječniperuos (epithet); trad+n,
Xepal trapartouévn (predicate of time); 6pºoke (verb con
taining the primary predicate); Extray}\a (adverb of man
ner); data (local predicate, almost equivalent to adverb of
place); rav ć. N. droxov6os (noun in apposition, which
involves the main category of the whole sentence); i.e.
“the well-poised oar, when graspt by the hands, bounds
surprisingly in the sea, and keeps pace with the hundred
feet of the Nereids'.”
445 There are certain words which are used specially
in this sort of predication, and in a different sense from
that which they bear as epithets. Such are the pronouns
•
It was necessary to dwell at some length upon this subject, to
which sufficient attention is rarely paid, because the whole doctrine of
tertiary predicates depends upon it. Perhaps the first writer who treated
this subject accurately was K. O. Müller, in the Gött. Gel. Anz. for 1838,
. 1110, who applied this doctrine to the passages from Soph. Aj. 594,
(Ed. Col. 718. quoted above.
-
184
SYNTAX OR
CONSTRUCTION.
and adjectives, which denote separation, locality, and quan
tity: e.g. aurós, uéoros, Trás, &AAos.
a. With the article, or as an epithet, autos is idem, “the
same.”
Without the article, or as a secondary predicate, autós is
ipse, “self.”
In the oblique cases, as a mere pronoun without the
article, it is equivalent to the oblique cases of is, i.e. “him,
her, it.”
Thus:
d autos durip = “the same man,”
6 dump autós = “the man himself,
r; yºun avrov = “his wife,” or “the wife of him.”
b. With the article, or as an epithet, uéoros means that
which stands between two other objects.
Without the article, or as a secondary predicate, puéros
is a local predicate signifying the middle point or part of a
particular object. Thus Bury St. Edmund's is juéorn ºrdAts,
because it stands half-way between Cambridge and Ips
wich. But a market-place is €v pérn Th tróAel, because
it stands in the centre of a particular town.
c. With the article, Trás and &AAos signify the entirety
or whole residue of a collection of objects; thus, of travtes
are cuncti, of &AAoi are reliqui. But without the article,
they are merely pronominal words expressing collection
and difference. "Ekaortos is either a pronominal word of
this kind: or it is a secondary predicate expressive of sepa
rate locality.
446 To this idiom we may at once refer the absolute
use of the participle in the nominative (151). This is
particularly common in the case of those verbs which are
used impersonally; here the participle appears in a sort of
causal sense: as ééov attéval, “since it was necessary to
depart;” 86%av Tavra, “because these things had been
determined;” and sometimes with tºs, as in the regular
causative sentence (below, 616, Obs. 3); thus: as Tóð' aiua
xetuatov TóAw (Soph. OEd. T. 101). The adverbial nature
of the participle in this construction is established by the
fact that an adverb may be substituted for it. Thus, in
Thucyd. Iv, 20; doraq,6s 6Toréptov dpędvtov, the author
might have written &önxov čv for doraq,0s.
447 This adverbial apposition of the nominative of
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
185
the participle sometimes assumes an appearance of great
syntactical laxity, as when a nominative plural is placed
by the side of an impersonal verb in the singular; thus:
Tposłvveſłaxero Tns opuns at vnes toxung agai Tapakivºv
veſſelv (Thucyd. III, 36); or, where a nominative singular
stands by the side of another nominative in the plural;
thus:
Adyot 3' év d'AAñAotoriv éâfid60w
Kakol
púAaš ČAéyxov (pºaka (Soph. Antig. 260).
§ VIII. (3) The Genitive.
448 The Genitive signifies that the object referred to
is considered as the source from which something proceeds
—that it is sustaining a loss—that something is being taken
from or out of it.
All the meanings of this case in Greek Syntax belong to
one or other of the three following classes:
a.
The Genitive of Ablation, or the ablative case ; as:
araXAdºttetv riva voorov, liberare aliquem a morbo, “to free
some one from a disease.”
b. The Genitive of Partition, or the partitive case; as:
£30&d got rôv xpnuditov, dedi tibi de meå pecunid, “I
gave you a part of my money.”
c.
The Genitive of Relation, or the relative case; as:
8taq’épet Ta. €Tepa Töv čTépov, “as compared with one
another, the things do not differ.”
449 To the first two classes belong all those usages,
which are expressed in English by the prepositions “of” or
“from.” And whenever we wish to express that an object
is the cause of some action, or the source from which some
thing else proceeds, the material of which it is made, or of
which it is full; that it is something from which we desist,
from which we are separated or set free, or of which we
are deprived; in all these instances we have the Greek
genitive, as an ablative case. And when we wish to ex
press that an object is a whole, from or out of which we
take a part, e.g. the meal of which we partake, the sub
stance from which we derive a sensation, and the like, we
employ the Greek genitive as a partitive case.
oveev
186
450
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
The transition from the ideas of ablation and
partition to that of relation is immediate.
Indeed, the
word proportion, which is applied to the latter, refers more
literally to the former. And there are many examples in
which it would be difficult to say whether the genitive sig
nified relation or partition. Thus, “to be king of a country,”
dvdoorew tris Yns, may be periphrased into: “to be king in
regard to the country;” or, “to belong to the country as
king.” There is always this option in the case of posses
sives, comparatives, and superlatives: for it matters not
whether we consider the genitive as a partitive or relative
case. We sometimes find in the same sentence two geni
tives, one of which is partitive and the other relative, and
yet the difference between their significations is so slight,
that they might be termed both of them partitive or rela
tire; thus in Plato, Respubl. p. 439, A, we have: oº Toºro
Bires Tów Tivos eval, i.e. “tanquam partem eorum, quae ad
aliud quid referuntur.” We might have expressed either
genitive in English by the phrase “belonging to”—“as be
longing to those things which belong to something else.”
451. The relation of time, and those of price and value,
are expressed by genitives, which are strictly partitive.
For as the genitive expresses some indefinite point of conti
nuous time rather than the whole continuance (below, 459),
it is clear that the idea of relation emanates from that of par
tition. So too, in the genitirus pretii, it is clear that a divi
sion into parts or proportions is presumed when we speak
of the value of one object in terms of another. For if we
say: “he buys land for gold,” we mean, “he buys a cer
tain portion of land for a certain proportion of gold.” It
would be easy to give any number of examples; but it is
more useful to the pupil that he should apply the true doc
trine to the instances which he meets with in the course of
his reading.
452. If the partitive genitive follows a transitive verb,
we signify that a part of the object is affected. If the same
case follows a middle verb, we signify that we have become
a part of the object; thus: £xw roºro, “I have this;”
Exo too dpyvptov, “I have part of the money;” exopal
too dpyuptov, “I cleave to the money—I am, as it were,
part of it.” Similarly: tó trip five to reixos, “the fire
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
187
lighted the wall;” rô trºp five roº Teixovs (Thucyd. Iv,
100), “the fire caught a part of the wall;” to trip fivato
Tov retxovs, “the fire caught the wall,” i.e. clave to it.
453 The genitive of partition or relation is particularly
common after éxw, keſual, fixo, with ei, or an adverb in -os,
signifying quality; as, travos étrio triums #xel, “he is suffi
ciently well off in regard to understanding.” Sometimes
there are two genitives, as in Thucyd. 1, 36; tı Képkupa ris
'Iraxias kai Xikexías kaxtos trapdraou keira, “in regard to
Italy and Sicily, Corcyra lies well for a coasting-voyage.”
454 The absolute secondary predications with the
participle (above, 446, 7), occur more frequently in the
genitive than in any other case. The genitive is here causal,
i.e. ablative (above, 449), and the Latin ablative is used in
precisely the same manner; thus: époi kafletſ?ovtos = me
dormiente = “while, or because I was sleeping at the time.”
It is a mistake to confuse this with the genitive as express
ing the relation of time, for the secondary predication is
contained in the participle itself.
§ IX. (Y) The Dative.
455 The Dative signifies that the object referred to is
considered as the point of juxta-position or immediate prox
imity—that it is receptive of accession or gain—that some
thing is being added to it.
The Greek Dative is therefore diametrically opposed to
the genitive. (a) The latter signifies separation, the
former provimity; (b) the latter denotes subtraction, the
former addition ; (c) the latter expresses comparison of
different things, the former equality or sameness. Thus,
compare:
a. [Ioxvkpateſ dußmore with taxwrpdºreſ' vios éoſo.
b. 8:8wuí got td Xpriuara with Čáopas Xpnudºrov.
c. oºrds Čortiv 6 autos ékeive with étriotrium étriatriums
Ataqopos.
456 Hence the Dative is capable of expressing what
ever is close at hand; (a) occasions, (b) instruments, (c)
agents, (d) conveniences and the contrary, (e) special limita
tions. In general, where we use the English prepositions
“with" (not signifying company, but see 457) “at,” “in,”
188
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
“to,” or “for,” we may employ the Greek dative; as in
the following examples:
a. Kauvei vdorp, “the disease is the occasion of his suf
fering.”
b. Tatarrel fid/334, “the stick is the instrument with
which he strikes.”
c. Tavra AéAektat itſu, “these things have been said,
and we are at hand as the speakers.”
d. MevéAaos, 5 &n Tövée TAoûv €orreſ\aptev, “for whose
convenience we engaged in this expedition.”
e
i atpatid girov oux exev autº, “he found that
the army had no provisions,” i.e. “the army presented
itself to his mind under that aspect.”
457 The learner will observe that the use of the dative
in (a) and (b) is little different from that of the adverb of
manner. Thus the datives in Tºpče tº Tpdtrip eyeveto, &pou?
trapmadev, are equivalent to adverbs in -os. The same is
the case with the use of airds, to signify a collective accom
paniment; compare such phrases as trèvre vavs Aapov, kaº
pitav Towtov autoſs dwepdau (Thucyd. Iv, 14), i.e. “to
gether with its whole crew,” or, “men and all;" with the
adverbial datives, Tavèmuel, &nuorſº, tétºn, &c.
458 The usages (c), (d), and (e) really differ very
little. In each instance, the dative presumes juxta-position
for a special purpose, which is a limitation. Thus, if we
said taura AéAekta, Ug' mutov, we should imply that we
were the cause from which the speaking proceeded: the
mere dative muſt denotes that for us, or as far as ace are
concerned, these things have been said.
459 From the same limiting power, the dative be
comes equivalent to an adverb of place or time. As a mere
locative, the use of the dative without €v, or some such
preposition, is mostly confined to the poets. But its use
in expressions of definite time is very common; as, Tapnv
Tº Tpirm iuépg, “he was here on the third day.” Here
again we see the difference between the genitive and the
dative: for vuktós, juépas roleſv ti, means to “do a thing,”
not on some particular night or day, but “by night” as
opposed to by day, and rice versä, i.e. at some point in the
night or the day-time (above, 451).
SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION.
189
§ X. (3) The Accusative.
460 The Accusative signifies that the object referred
to is considered as the point towards which something is
proceeding—that it is the end of the action or motion
described.
461 As the case of transition, therefore, it is properly
used to express the immediate object of transitive verbs,
which are so called because their action passes on from the
subject to an object. And even when the verb is intransi
tive, or has its action completed within itself, it may be
followed by an accusative denoting the more remote object.
Thus we may say both Aapſ3diva Trºv dottòa and Tétrany
pai Tiju kepaariv.
462 According to the same principle, we may place
two accusatives after the same transitive verb when we
wish to express that a nearer, as well as a more remote
object, a person as well as a thing, is affected by the
action of the verb; thus:
a. enſ?aſovs Xpnuata frnorav (Thucyd. 1, 27), i.e. ro–
gabant—quos ? Thebaeos—quid? pecuniam : so that either
xpnuara-irngav, or enſłaíovs-fitno av, constitute a single
transitive verb.
-
b. rows troAejatovs rmv waiv directepſkapev-i.e. “we
have deprived—whom?—the enemies—of what ?—the
ship.”
},
this class we may refer verbs of teaching, asking,
clothing, depriving, speaking and acting well or ill, &c.
463 If such sentences are expressed by a passive verb,
the accusative of the person becomes the nominative; but
the thing is still expressed by the acusative; as:
of troAéuot triv wavv diſpupéðngav.
464 Verbs, whether active, neuter, or passive, may
have after them an accusative of a cognate signification:
this is called the Figura Etymologica : as :
a. dpås apátai traighw
dvorwardras
(Eurip. Phoen. 65).
b.
c.
Kwévvetſow rootov Tov kívčvvov.
TAmyriv Tétranyuai.
190
SYNTAX OR
CONSTRUCTION.
465 Space of time and place are expressed in the accu
sative; as:
a. Kd6mvro èv Makečovíg Tpeſs ôAovs ºnvas.
b. dréxei 8éka orraðiðvs.
466 The accusative denotes motion to a place; as:
rí Čnta Xpſets; m 36povs a tetxeiv šuous;
(Soph. OEd. Col. 643)
467 An accusative is sometimes put in apposition to
a sentence; as in Eurip. Orest. 1103:
'EAévnv Krávogev, MeveXép Avirriv trikpav,
“let us kill Helen, to grieve Menelaus,” or, “which will be
an affliction to Menelaus.”
468 Sometimes a verb in the infinitive is similarly
attached to the accusative by way of additional explanation;
as: épn ékeſvov otpatnyeiv, “he said that the other man
was general.” This is one form of the objective sentence
(see below, 588).
§ XI. Contrasted Meanings of the Oblique Cases.
469 From the separate examination of the oblique
cases, the learner may derive brief rules respecting their
distinctive significations:
The Genitive denotes motion from a place.
The Dative
— rest in a place.
The Accusative — motion to a place.
And
The Genitive implies separation.
The Dative
— conjunction.
The Accusative — approach with a view to con
junction.
These differences of meaning appear most clearly in the
construction of the cases with prepositions.
§ XII. Secondary Predicates. (b) Supplement to
the Cases. Prepositions
470 The Prepositions, usually so called, are pronomi
mal adverbs indicating place with reference to some object,
which is regularly expressed in an oblique case, the geni
tive, dative, or accusative—and in direct apposition to the
SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION.
191
adverb. Some prepositions admit of only one case in this
apposition; some admit two; others may be construed
with any one of the three cases.
471 The prepositions which admit the genitive only
are: divtſ, dºrd, ék or éé, and trpo.
Those which admit the dative only are: év and gºv (ºv).
And eis admits only the accusatire.
472 The following are prefixed to the genitive and
accusative: dia, kata, Utrep.
The dative or accusative may follow dvd.
473 The following may be followed by any one of the
three cases: dupſ, ärt, peta, Tapa, Tepi, Tpds, and Jiró.
§ XIII. (a) Prepositions with the Genitive. Avti and
IIpó.
474 "Avt. and irpá, signify “on behalf of,” “in front
of,” “instead of.” “for the sake of:” the only difference
between them being this: duri signifies, “in loco quodam,
qui ex adverso stat,” whereas Tpo is more general and
denotes, “quodcunque ante oculos est.” The genitive ob
viously expresses relation, as in the following examples:
'Avºrſ:
oux év ris att' papVev &AAos dun' éuov
(Soph. Aj. 439).
IIpg:
képôos aluma'al Tpo 3tras 36Atov (Pind. P. Iv, 140).
Bpagićav &muorig 30avav ev th troAet "po Tris vov
dyopas ovans (Thucyd. v., 11).
Tov
§ XIV. 'Atro and é.
475 'Aro and ék (&) are followed by a genitive of
ablation. The latter answers to the Latin ea', the former to
the Latin ab, as well in origin as in signification. Thus:
érotuns ºn tims otpatia's otions ék Te Tns Kepkūpas
kał dro Tris ſite:pov (Thucyd. VII, 33.),
i.e. “an army being now ready out of Corcyra and from
the mainland.”
Obs. Although diró, ab, signify motion from the surface
of an object (eatrinsecus), and éâ, ea, motion from within
an object (intrinsecus), it may be a matter of indifference
192
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
which of the two we use: compare Thucyd. Iv, 38: &la
TAewa as autoſs d to riov čk the riteipov Aakecauovítov dump
Grify yeaev, with Æsch. Pers. 355; dump Yap "EAAmv ć
'Admvatov otpatov ćA00v Aeče.
§ XV. (3) Prepositions with the Dative. 'Ev and a ſu.
476 'Ev and gºv (Évv) agree in origin and signification
with the Latin in and cum, with this proviso, that instead
of in with the accusative, the Greeks employ the longer
form, eis = €v-s; for which see the next section. 'Ev signifies
super-position ; avv, conjunction ; as:
Kačuetov dyo XaAkéois d6pool a v v 8taois Épapov,
& v Xep 3' 'Au%itpiſov koxeou Yvuvov Twdoro ov pairyavov
fkero (Pind. N. 1, 51, 52).
For the difference between orºv and uera, see the note on
Soph. Antig. 115, 6.
§ XVI. (7) Preposition with the Accusatire. "Els.
477 'Ev and els = €v-s really do not differ more than
ěk and Čš-ék-s, "pö and Tpos. But this -s affixed conveys
a more decided expression of motion. Eis signifies ad or
in (cum accus.) i.e. “to,” or “into ;” as:
els pokéas as Tpos orvuudyovs Topeiſeto
(Demosth. Philipp. III, p. 113, § 16).
Obs.
Here the more advanced student will observe that
els bºokéas, strictly speaking, designates the name of the
country, whereas as Tpos ovuudyovs is a personal reference:
from which mode of speaking arose the use of as alone
with names of persons, in nearly the same sense as els with
names of things; e.g. Toéopets Tétouq'ev as Bagºča, for
as Tpos /3agiNéa (Demosth. Philip. 1, p. 54. § 55).
Pindar sometimes uses for els the shorter form év; as:
dueivew év koixóredov vatros Geoû (P. v., 37).
§ XVII. (3) Prepositions with the Genitive and Accusa
tive. Atd.
478 Ald denotes separation or disjunction. With the
Genitive of ablation, therefore, Ča signifies that something
is done, “through and out of;” with the Accusative of
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
193
motion and reference, that it is done “through, and towards,
or with reference to,” i.e. “along of,” or “on account of."
Thus with the genitive:
a. 3rd “through” ºrdons &le;ex0av rins Eºpºwns
(Herod. VIII, 3).
b. of "EAAnves étrekaxéravro Aéyovres & “by means of"
dyyáAwv (Id. VII. 203).
-
with the accusative:
exo ydp &xw &id “on account of” oré Kouk daxov 3potów
(Soph. OEd. Col. 1129).
There are some idiomatic usages of 3rd with the genitive,
which scarcely require explanation; thus, Šid pixias iéval
tivi, “to go all-through—friendship for some one ;” i.e. “to
be thoroughly friendly,” and so forth.
The learner will find it easiest to recollect that Šid with
the genitive corresponds to per, with the accusative to
propter. But in Homer, Pindar, and other poets, 8ta with
the accusative sometimes signifies per, with this proviso,
that it answers to the question quo 2 “whither?” and not,
as with the genitive, to the question unde? “whence?” so
that the meaning is rather “along” than “through;” e.g. ēld
trövtov kvua répéva as éndu dvargav (Eurip. Hippol. 762).
§ XVIII. Kará.
479 Kard with the genitive denotes vertical motion
or direction; with the accusative it signifies horizontal mo
tion or direction.
a.
[3m Če kat' OVAſutolo Kaprivov (down from the sum
mits) xwduevos knp (Hom. Il. 1.44).
b. kata tróðas (at their heels) to ethºvyov čvéetkvvvral
(Thucyd. Iv, 126).
Thus of kard x86va are the living (Eurip. Hippol. 452),
but 6 kard x0ovás (Soph. Antig. 24) is the dead. In com
position with kard, a verb governs the genitive, if the
action comes down upon the object, but the accusative, if
the action merely follows the object in its own line of
motion. Hence, kard with the genitive is sometimes ren
dered “against,” and kard with the accusative, “in accord
ance with.” In the former signification, kata is opposed to
D. G. G.
13
194
SYNTAX
OR CONSTRUCTION.
dvd ; in the latter, there is but little difference in their use
(below, § XX).
§ XIX. 'Yrép.
480 ‘Y-Tép,-which is connected with rept, and appears
as the comparative degree of U-tra, designates the apex
of the compass; whereas repl denotes the circle described.
If the genitive follows, wrép signifies super relatively; but
if the accusative accompanies it, the meaning is ultra, with
motion implied. Thus,
a. of Utrép flaxdorans, “those who live above, with regard
to the sea.”
b. Urép 'EAAñatovtov oikovai, “they live on the other
side of the Hellespont—if you go that way.”
As the protecting champion fought over, as well as before
his friend, we find both wrép and Tpd, with the genitive,
in the sense, “on behalf of;” as in Eurip. Alcest. 690: p.m.
0vna Y Jºrép toº avčpós, ove’ exº to 6 row. But there is
an implication of hostility in the use of Utrép with the accu
sative: thus Utºp dutxaktav, Pind. I. v., 29. Sometimes, wrép
corresponds in meaning to the cognate rept, as in Herodot.
II, 123: Ta Aeyóueva Jrép ékdatov. It stands in a certain
parallelism to dupi and kūk\p in Soph. Antig. 117:
ords 3' UTép plexd5pov pove:galow du q xavºv kvKA 'p
Adºxals, k. T. A.
§ XX. (e) Preposition with the Dative and Accusative.
º
'Avd.
481 'Avd with the dative is nearly equivalent to Urép
with the genitive, or ét} with the dative, i.e. it means
super, “up-on;" as:
eiße avd. akdºrrº Atós alerós (Pind. P. I, 6).
But this usage is confined to the Poets.
With the accusative, dvd signifies sursum per, “up-to;"
or “up-by:’ as,
dvé6aive Meadv6ios alrdAos alytov
és 6axduovs 'Oövoranos dwd £67as peydpolo
(Hom. Od. xxii, 142).
Obs. The learner must be taught to remark the constant
antithesis or parallelism of the correlatives dwd and kará,
SYNTAX OR
195
CONSTRUCTION.
which appear as equivalent particles under the shortened
forms &v and kév (below, 501). We may represent the
force of these prepositions by either of the following forms:
; 4.
kard
Q- *
--Otiſcº
+:
*S
Thus dug, kard, may signify “backwards and forwards,”
“hither and thither,” (ultro, citroque); &vo, karw, “up and
down” (sursum, deorsum); kard implies affirmation, dud,
negation ; kata signifies progress, dvd, retrogression, and so
forth.
But sometimes, it seems a matter of indifference
which of these prepositions we employ. Thus we might
say, Tovs diprous troxeſv Kar' 3/30Åov, or du jutoſłoxaſa ; divd
kpatos, or kata. 8wapuv; dvd Trévre, or ka0' étrºra; and
cator0morav diva tas tróAets, or kata tróAets 8tekptông'av.
éake
§ XXI, (C) Prepositions with three Cases. Aug; and
Trept.
482 Augſ, utrinque, and IIept, circum, are nearly sy
nonymous; the former denotes an imperfect, the latter a
completed circle. Hence dupi is sometimes strengthened by
the addition of kūkA* or rept, as in dupixavºv Kūk\p, duqi
rep; Kprivny. We find dupi chiefly in the Ionic writers and
in Poetry; tep occurs everywhere.
a. Augſ, IIept, with the genitive, signify, “around,
with relation to, yet separation from, something else;” as:
du pº ºrdxios oikéovoi (Herod. VIII, 104).
retavvaro Teph atteſovs juepts (Hom. Od. v., 68).
Hence: “about or concerning;" as:
tota& d a plans Aéyw traič0s flavoiſons (Eurip. Hec. 580).
trepſ re ypauldrov Čvvduews kai ovXAaſłów Kai Év0uðv Kal
approviſov (Plat. Hipp. Ma. p. 285, D).
b. 'Appſ, IIepſ, with the dative, signify, “around and
upon, or close by," as:
trétaous pſyvvoru du pº aduati (AEsch. Pers. 199).
reptAppſ,
pév rāqi
kepaxfire
tidpas signify,
(Herod. VII,
61). Or
c.
IIept,
with theexow
accusative,
motion
gº
extension around.” Thus Herodotus, in the passage just
13–2
-
3.
196
SYNTAX
OR CONSTRUCTION.
quoted, adds rep &é to ròua kiöðvas, because while the
tiara remains firm on the head, the tunic floats about the
body; but see the preceding example; so also :
du pº re dotu peoplew ipd fleoſow (11. XI, 706).
d pièv ºn tre p? IIlepinv &létpiffe riuépas auxuds
(Herod. vi.1, 131).
§ XXII. 'Ett.
483 'ET by itself denotes super-position. With the
genitive therefore it signifies superposition with separation.
There are two applications of this meaning. We may
either imply, that, although there is total separation, yet
the object is so placed that a line drawn from it would pass
over or through the object designated by the genitive: or
we may signify, that, although one object is placed on the
top of another, yet the whole of the superimposed object
does not rest upon the supporting surface. In the former
case, étri with the genitive may denote direction or motion
at a certain height; e.g. a ship at sea was considered to be
up in the air
; hence, such phrases as traeiv ćr.
>duov (Thucyd. 1, 116), “to sail in the direction of Sa
mos.”. Past time is considered as up or above (cf. the aug
...;
ment é- for avd., 289); hence: étrº Aapetov ćyévero, (Herod.
VI, 98), “it happened in the time of Darius.” In the other
case, it with the genitive denotes partial superposition,
as when planks are laid across piles fixed at intervals
(Herod. v., 16: tºpia èr gravpóv JºnAdv garnke), or when
burdens are laid upon the head or shoulders, so as to extend
beyond them on both sides, (Herod. II. 35: of uévéri riov
Rega\éov popéoval, at 8 yvvaikes étrº Tºv duov). Hence
such phrases, as ét} 0póvov ka0íčerbal, ép' ſtrov dyeſota,
in sitting and riding the legs hang down by the
*
S1010.
With the dative, Čºr signifies absolute superposition, i.e.
rest upon or close to ; as:
olkéovres étrº XTovuévi (Herod. vi.1, 75).
With the accusative, éti signifies motion with a view to
superposition ; as:
avaffaively € p’ ſtarov.
-
º
f
y
*
--
w
197
SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION.
§ XXIII.
Merd.
484 Merd denotes companionship (above, 78). With
the genitive therefore it signifies, “connexion, with relation
to ;" i.e. separable connewion ; as:
pºeta ºutdov čvi oike rive kał made (Hom. Od. xv.1, 140).
With the dative perá is found only in poetry; and then
it signifies, “connexion, close upon, or among;" i.e. as a
part of the object; thus:
pl et a 3é Tpiratotaw
àvagorev (Hom. Il. I,
252).
Meta with the accusative signifies, “motion with a view
to companionship;" as:
Bn 3é Met' 'I&opewma, uéya troAéuoio usunxeſs
(Hom. Il. xIII, 297).
§ XXIV.
IIapó.
485 ſlapa is equivalent to apud, with an implication
of motion, i.e. it means “from the side of.” (a) With the
genitive, trapd goû is: apud me a te; (b) with the dative,
trapa goí, is: “apud te—a me vel aliunde;” (c) with the
accusative, trapd gé, is: “progrediens a me, vel aliunde, ut
apud te sit.” Thus:
a. dyyexín fixel trapd Baglamos (Herod. VIII, 140).
b. Erikpateſv trapa tº £3aorixá (Herod. Iv, 65).
c. hyayov aurov trapa Kºpov (Herod. 1, 86).
Obs. The usage of trapd with the genitive and dative is
tolerably uniform ; but there are certain idiomatic usages
of this preposition with the accusative, which require a few
words of explanation to connect them with the general
definition. Thus, trapa signifies praeter, “besides," i.e. “in
addition to,” as, oux écriri trapd
raor' &AAa
(Arist.
Nub.
698), i.e. taking them and placing them by the side of these
things, quo fiet ut adjiciantur. It signifies praeter, when it
is almost synonymous with contra, “against;” as: trapd
86%av, praeter opinionem, as if two contrary things were
compared; by a similar transition we have in English a
“beside the question,” for “out of,” or, “inconsistent with.”
In Demosthenes, trapd with the accusative means propter,
“on account of,” as in our vulgar idiom, “all along of.”
Here it is a less usual construction than did cum accusa
two.
198
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
§ XXV. IIpăs.
486. IIpos or r-po-ri is only a lengthened form of
IIapó (above, 78); but, containing in itself a significance of
motion onwards, it denotes ad-versus rather than apud.
(a) With the genitive: Tp 6s untpos, is a matre versus me
cognati, “relations on the mother's side; (b) with the
dative: trp 6s tº Auévi, “close by the harbour,” motion
thither previously being assumed. (c) With the accusative:
Tpos tow owpavóv, is “towards heaven,” ad coelum versus.
Hence irpos roºrov, “from,” or “in consideration of these
things—as a motive;” Tpos Tourois, “in addition to these
things—as an act;" "pos raûra, “with a view to these
things—as an end.”
Obs. 1. It will be observed that ºpds, with the dative,
does not perceptibly differ from trapd with the same case.
But, although trapd with the genitive is directly opposed
to trapd with the accusative, we find trpos with the geni
tive apparently used as a synonym for Tpos with the accu
sative. Thus, in the same sentence (Herod. II, 121): Tov
pév Trpos Bopéw éorreóra, Tov će Tpos vdrov. This arises
from the motion implied: for in regard to a direction it
matters little whether we consider it as indicated by a line
proceeding from or tending to a given point in the compass.
This interchange is observed, but very rarely, in the use of
Tapa with the genitive".
The employment of "pos with
the genitive, in adjurations, as opposed to that of vn and ud
with the accusative in affirmations, is to be explained in
the same way; for Tpos detºv means, “in the eyes of the
gods, as seen by the gods,” where the Romans said, per te
deos oro. Although old with the genitive is equivalent to
the Latin per in other uses, the student must be careful not
to substitute bid for Tpos in this usage.
Obs. 2.
Students should also remark the difference
between the prepositions trpás, perd, §v, which may all be
occasionally rendered by “with,” cum. Thus, “they
fought with their enemies” (cum hostibus), is, trpos rous
évavrious éudyovro ; “they went on the expedition with
their allies” (cum sociis), is, ue to rév čuppaxtov čarpa
Tevov; and “they conquered with the aid of the gods”
(cum diis), is, £0 v toſs 0éoſs évíkww.
* See the note on Soph. Antig. 937, p. 207.
SYNTAX
199
OR CONSTRUCTION.
§ XXVI. ‘Yºró.
487. Yºró, from which wré-p is formed, signifies with
the genitive, motion from beneath ; with the dative, posi
tion below ; with the accusative, motion or eatension under
neath; thus:
a.
i kal veoogov Tóvã' wºrd Trépôv
(Eurip.
b. kaAm ºn 6 TAataviorp (Hom. Il.
c. wºr'"IAlov ºpto wavgärns otpatós
ordaas
Androm. 442).
II, 307).
(AEsch. Ag. 459).
One of the most frequent usages of the genitive with
Utro is that which expresses the cause, under and out of
which an act is performed. The difference between Jiró
rov, Ek Tov, 3rd Tov, Šid ri, is well given in a passage of
Philo-Judaeus (1, p. 162): Tpos Tiju Tivos Yévégiv troAAd
8e7 ovvex0eiv. To ºp' oº, to é à oð, Tô & of, to 3’ & Kaſ
égri to uév Up' ov, “To atriov’” ºr of 88, “rī (An'" & "
oš Če, “épyaxeſovº” 8. § 3e, “n airía.” “Iöe
rów
6 révêe
w
oš
w
-
r
-
evpnorets 'Yap,
koo-ſtov
4 g ...”
autuov
zy
w
y
-
v
piev autov Tov
w
eolº
º
q,
76% over “WAnv” &é, td régorapa atoixeſa & ºv ovvexpdön:
“öpyavov” 3e, Adyov Geow, 3' ot, ovveakevda'6n' Tris &é
karaokevns “airíav” rºw dyadórnta toû Anuoup'you.
Like the Latin sub, Jiro with the accusative expresses
extension of time up to, but not through, a specified period;
thus, Jºro vſkta, sub noctem, “up to the beginning of
night.”
§ XXVII. Quasi Prepositions.
488 Many nouns are used as prepositions with the
genitive: such are ëtznv or Tpdºrov, “instar;” eveka (cºvera,
Ill) or ēkati, “ergo;’ xàpiv, “gratiâ,” &c. &c. Thus:
a. Kuvos &tknv, “just like a watch-dog” (AEsch. Ag. 3).
b. Tpdºrov alyvtſov, “like vultures” (id. ibid. 48).
c. dé0Aww y' ºvera, “for the matter of prizes at least,”
i.e. “as far as they are concerned” (Pind. O. 1, 99).
d.
TrAríðovs ékati, “for the matter of numbers,” i.e. “as
far as numbers go;” or, “if it had depended on that"
(AEsch. Pers. 337).
e rôAuas xdpw, “thanks to his boldness” (Soph.
Antig. 368).
They are sometimes used with other prepositions: thus
we have
200
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
dupi row ºvera (Soph. Phil. 554).
dro /3ons évéka (Thucyd. VIII, 92).
Teph Tāv dpåvrov čvekev (Lys. de Evandr. Prob. p. 176).
éveka Tow Totovtov xipw (Plato, Polit. p. 302, B).
§ XXVIII. C. Tertiary Predicates.
489 The tertiary predicate, as has been already sug
gested, implies some sort of TpéAnvis, or anticipation of a
primary or secondary predication in the nominative case.
Thus, in the example given above (404): 3 pavris rous
Adyovs Nzévêeſs Aéyei, we imply either the primary predicate
of Adyo Nzévêeſs elaſv, or the secondary predicate of Adyot
Nzévêeſs Aéyovrai : for the meaning is “the prophet speaks,
and his words are false" = “he speaks, and the words which
he speaks are false" = “he speaks, and his words are falsely
spoken.”
490 The most convenient rule for translating this
idiom is to take the tertiary predicate as the primary one,
and to make the verb which contains the primary predicate
dependent on a relative; as if the phrase: o givoképes Triv
3opav iryupotatny exei, which means “the rhinoceros has
its hide very strong” (as in the French idiom: il a le front
large), were to be rendered by its equivalent: i öopa, ºv d
Éwoképtos exel, taxwportiºrn éarív, “the hide, which the
rhinoceros has, is very strong.” But the other plan may
also be adopted, and the primary predication added, as if
we were to say: 6 givoképws &opáv exei kai i öopa aurov
taxwpotdºrn attv, “the rhinoceros has a hide, and it is a
very hard one.” The only difference in the two cases being,
that the hide is assumed to exist in the former mode of
rendering.
491 The article, which distinguishes the subject of
this tertiary predicate (above 404), is sometimes replaced
by the demonstrative, as in:
dirópºp ye tºe ovurerXéYueta #éve
(Eurip. Bacch. 800),
which is equivalent to: 6 #évos ouros,
ovure"račyueffa,
ãropós ris eartív. And in this case, the predicate is often
represented by an interrogative, which is to be explained
in the same way: for
SYNTAx OR CONSTRUCTION.
201
Tívas roſ' ºpas rarèe not bodčete;
(Soph. (Ed. T. 2.)
== rives elov at £ºpal afºe, is uo. 60¢ere; “what are these
supplicatory seats, which I see you occupying here ?”
492 The words, which occur as secondary predicates
in the nominative, are of most frequent use as tertiary pre
dicates in the oblique cases: and of these the participle has
the most extensive employment. For while other words
are discriminated from their immediate subject by the
article prefixed to the latter, the participle is sufficiently
distinguished by the absence of the article in its own case.
And the student cannot be too early impressed with the fact,
that the participle without the article can never be rightly
rendered by the relative sentence with a definite antece
dent, which is equivalent to the participle with an article.
493 . The following example shews the connexion be
tween this sort of tertiary predicate and the secondary predi
cation in the nominative: ou yap d'pawn kpive ºre Triv číknv
Tijvee, traivoſuevo be rep; otö jutºv ueurtów (Thucyd. III,
57), in which aq’avn and usurröv are tertiary predicates,
and étrawoſuévol, a secondary predicate in the nominative;
thus: “this judgment, which you will give, will not be
unknown; for you, the judges, are praised, and we, the
parties, are free from reproach.” So also Xen. Anab. IV,
1. § 13: oxoMaiav Štrotovu triv tropetav troAAd &vta rā wro
{ºyia.
494 Sometimes it is only necessary to connect the
predicate contained in the participle with that contained in
the finite verb, by introducing a copulative conjunction:
thus, as we render ºx6ev dyov, “he came and brought”
(442 a), we may render, Yvvm ris àpviv eixe kaff €kdoºrny
nuépav dov aurº Tíkrova'av : “a certain woman had a hen,
and it laid her an egg every day.”
495 But if the oblique case is connected with a preposi
tion, it becomes necessary to express this preposition by a
relative sentence or some descriptive word. Thus, above 493,
the word “parties” was necessary to give the full force of
repſ. So also in the following cases of participles:
(a) The substantive has the article: dateves év rpós
iry ſovras roºs éxôpoſs (Thucyd. 1, 36), “being weak,
while his enemies, with whom he stands in contrast (tpds),
202
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
will be strong;" and āAAws re kał Ureſºuvov triv trapaſverw
exoviras Tpos dwevövvov triv duetépav dispéaorw (Id. III, 43),
“especially as the advice which we give is responsible, as
contrasted (irpos) with the freedom from responsibility with
which you listen to us,” or “especially as the advice which
we give is responsible, whereas you, the listeners, who
stand in contrast to us (rpos), are irresponsible.” (3) when
the substantive has not the article: 3éðiuev an étrº èleyve
guéunv kptow kafligrºueta (id. III, 53), “we fear that what
we have to meet (šºr) is a prejudged decision.” (y) when
there is no substantive: paxpmyopeſv év eièdow ou 3ovXduevos
(id. II, 36), “because I do not wish to enlarge on the sub
ject, when my hearers (év) are well acquainted with it:"
cf. id. III, 53: "pos élèóras travra Aexe£eral, “those, to
whom the speech will have been addressed ("pös), know all
about it.”
496 . This is, of course, particularly observable when
the participle represents a local predicate (above, 442 b).
Thus we have in Herod. v., 29: éu dvertnºvín tº xºpm,
“in the country where it extends upwards from the coast."
The karé(3morav is to doºrv, which follows, shows that this
is the meaning intended.
497. Sometimes, as might be expected (above, 413),
the tertiary predicate approximates to the final sentence.
This prolepsis implies that the quality denoted by the adjec
tive is conveyed to the object by the verb. As in Thucyd.
IV, 17: toos Agyovs pakpotépous trapd to elw80s ow punkv
vovuev, i.e. date pakpotépous elva. This idiom is found
even in Latin, which has no article; as in Pers. 1, 17:
liquido cum plasmate guttur
Mobile collueris :
i.e. ut mobile fiat :
and even in the nominative; as in Juv. 1, 83:
paullatimgue anima caluerunt mollia sawa :
i.e. ita ut mollia fierent.
498 The Greek idiom did not even shrink from a nega
tive use of this prolepsis: thus we have in Soph. Antig.
856:
w
Tov
w
w
w
r
wºn
f
3 epov Toruov ačakpurov
oßes pi\ov arevače, :
i. e. dare ou 3axpúovow autov.
CHAPTER III.
ON THE HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION, AND ON
THE MOODS, AND NEGATIVE PARTICLES,
-
§ I. General Principles.
499 It has been already remarked, that there are two
kinds of hypothetical propositions: and that they always
contain two sentences. In the conditional hypothetical,
these sentences are connected as antecedent and relative.
In the disjunctive hypothetical, both sentences are relative.
The one kind, therefore, may be referred to the doctrine
of adverbial or dependent sentences: the other will fall
under the class of co-ordinate sentences.
§ II. Conditional Propositions.
500 In the conditional hypothetical, the conditional,
or relative, sentence is called the Protasis (tpdraqis),
while the sentence which follows is called the Apodosis
(dróðooris). It thus appears, that what is logically conse
quent, is grammatically antecedent.
501. The Protasis of a conditional preposition is most
generally and regularly expressed by the relative particle
et, and when it is thought necessary to express an ante
cedent to this relative, the particle div, or in Epic Greek ke,
appears in the apodosis. These particles are shortened
forms of the antithetic prepositions dud and kard (above,
481, Obs.).
502 There are four classes of conditional propositions,
which imply respectively
I. Possibility, without the expression of uncertainty:
e; tı £xe ôtóworl=“if he has any thing he gives it”
= si quid habet, dat.
II. Uncertainty, with some small amount of probabi
lity: éau tº exn, daiore = “if he shall have any thing
(which is not improbable), he will give it” = si quid
habeat, dabit.
III. Mere assumption, without any subordinate idea:
e; tı âxot, 6.80in &v=* if he were to have any thing
204
SYNTAx
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
(i.e. as often as he had any thing), he would give
it" = si quid habeat, det.
IV. Impossibility, or when we wish to indicate that
the thing is not so :
a. et r etxev, &ov &v= “if (which is not the case)
he had anything, he would give it” = si quid haberet,
daret.
b. ei ti taxev, ºwkev &v=if (which was not the case)
he had had any thing, he would have given it = si
quid habuisset, dedisset.
503 Circumstances may occur, under which the apo
dosis of one of these cases may follow the protasis of
another: thus, we may have the protasis of I. with the
apodosis of III., as in Soph. Antig. 901 :
&AA' et uév obv ráð' éortly €v fleoſº ºptAa,
traffèvres év čvy Yvoluev nuaptnrötes:
where a special supposition is followed by a general senti
ment. We have the protasis of IV., a. as well as of III,
with the apodosis of III., in Plato Apol., p.28, E: Bewd dy
einv eipyaguévos, el rére fuevov kai éxivöövevov, vºv tº
droximotu Triv rašiv, because the facts of his past life are
opposed to the mere supposition which he makes.
504 The apodosis is very often used in cases III. and
IV. without any protasis, and with the same distinction of
meaning, as if a protasis had been expressed; thus we have
in Soph. Aj.88:
pévolu' àv' ºffeXov 3’ &v čkrös ºv ruxelv,
where the optative is used, as it very often is, to express a
constrained future, “I suppose I must remain,” and the
indicative expresses, “but if it were possible, I should like
to be out of the way.”
505 The most common substitutes for el, in all these
cases of protasis, are the participle without the article, and
the relative with indefinite antecedent.
with scarcely any difference of meaning:
I. et ri čxei
§vov ti
x:exei
Cº.
8towai
-
Thus we can say,
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
Exn
ëxov ti
II. édiv
ev
Cz
Tt
ºw
}
205
&aire
**
Czly
eXm
III. et ri yo
*xºv
Tu
}* div.
*/
Cz
exot
IV. (a) et r elyev
éxov ri
ty
Ot
éčíčov &v.
*
el Yev
(b) et ri
*
3/
wn
e Yeov ºrt
éðtokev div.
*/
taxev
506 The student must observe, that, as āv is the ante
cedent of ei, when such an indefinite antecedent requires to
be expressed, and both &v and ris of Ös, we may write
édiv = et àu and Ös āv, or örris, or örris &v if we wish to
express the English “whensoever,” or “whosoever,” in
regard to the present or future apodosis, that is, in those
cases when these indefinite antecedents are not expressed
ot
in the apodosis.
507. The following is the general rule respecting the
use of div (ke, kev) in the formation of conditional propo
sitions. (1) With the optative, &v is always used in the
apodosis, seldom, if ever, in the protasis. (2) The sub
junctive never stands in the apodosis, but always in the pro
tasis, and is generally attended by áv.
508 a. In the apodosis, év is always placed after the
word, which produces the greatest influence on the predica
tion, which gives its colour to the sentence, and which
therefore comes nearest to the notion of an antecedent.
Thus we should write:
eitrot &v.
Tavr’ &v etrot.
pudao T' &v ettrol rajra.
ouk dºv ud Auota etrol raúra.
éčokovu du èuoi raora pdatorra el reſv.
ouk div ščákovv ćuo, raûra udatorra eitreſv.
Tí obv čv éðdkovv goi paatara eliteſv;
b. In the protasis, &v always follows the relative word,
which expresses the condition, such as Ös, Štws, wis, &c.
206
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
(above, 503), and coalesces with el, Öre, weiðn, which
become édiv, 3rav, Štreiðav, &c.
These combinations are
always followed by the subjunctive mood; whence the rule
for beginners: Relativa et particulae relativa cum &v sub
junctivum evigunt.
§ III.
General Rules respecting the Use of the Moods in
Conditional Propositions.
509 In the Attic writers it is only the indicative mood
which can, without the aid of the indefinite antecedent àv,
form the apodosis of a conditional proposition. Of course,
it is only this mood which can stand by itself in a catego
rical proposition.
510 Only the indicative and optative, assisted by div,
can form the apodosis of a conditional proposition.
511 The other moods and the participles belong to the
protasis or to the adverbial sentence: except that the infini
tive and participle may be converted into subjects by prefix
ing the article (above, 402, b, c), and that the participle may
form the primary predicate of a sentence (above, 420).
512 It is the practice in most treatises on Greek Syn
tax to discuss the uses of the moods according to their
conjugational subdivisions. This is false in theory and
mischievous in practice. The functions of a mood should
be separately stated, with reference to the different kinds
of sentences in which they may appear. An examination,
however, of the use of the moods in conditional propositions,
amounts, in effect, to a general discussion of their distinc
tive employments.
§ IV.
The Subjunctive and Optative in Conditional
Propositions.
513 It has been already remarked (292), that these
-
moods are by-forms of the future and aorist.
The sub
junctive was originally a determinate tense, like the future,
and signified “the probable occurrence of something after
the time of speaking” (431). The optative, as an aorist,
signified “the probable occurrence of something after the
time specified” (432). Thus, in Homer, we find these
forms used as tenses in categorical predications.
SYNTAX OR
CONSTRUCTION.
207
a. The subjunctive opposed to the aorist
ow Yap to rotovs toov divepas, otºe towpat (Il. 1, 262).
i.e. “for I have not yet seen such men, nor is it probable
that I shall behold such men hereafter.”
b. The optative parallel with the aorist:
6 &e Yeppidotov Ad 8e xeipt,
Tvøeſöns, uéya pyov, 3. 8wo divöp (bépotev
olo vºv 6porot elaſi (Il. v., 303).
i.e. “he, Tydeides, took up a great stone, which it is not
probable that men of our time would take up, if similar
circumstances were to occur.”
514 With this signification of probability is intimately
connected the implied ground of such probability, namely,
frequent occurrence; insomuch that in later Attic Greek
the adverb troAAdkis, “often,” is used in a protasis to sig
nify “perchance,” or “probably," i.e. “as often happens"
(Heindorf. ad Plat. Phaed. p. 19). Hence we find, that, in
the protasis of conditional propositions, the subjunctive,
preceded by the conditional words and āv (506), and the
optative without àv (507), presume a repetition, or fre
quency of occurrence. If the subjunctive is followed by
its cognate tense the future, we have seen that the con
ditional proposition looks to a probable result; if the
optative is followed by another optative with āv, we have
a mere supposition (499):
éâv tº \ \xn, Čaire, “whatever he shall have, or as often as
as he shall have any thing, he will give it.”
& div
& T \{xoi, Štěoín dv, “whatever he might have, or as
}
often as he had any thing, he would give it.”
But if the continuous present and past tenses are used in
&
the apodosis, the implication of frequency is more strongly
marked:
*
/
wº
9
-
46
Gav rivas Utön, traveſ, “whomsoever he sees, as often as
oùs &v
he sees them, he praises.”
et rivas Utöol, étrºve, “whomsoever he saw, as often as he
oùs
saw them, he praised.”
Where the present tense presumes the fact, the imperfect
assumes it.
208
515
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
If in this last case the frequency of action requires
a more distinct reference to the condition, the antecedent
&v may be appended to the imperfect indicative, to the
frequentative in -orkov (355), and even to the aorist indi
cative; thus we may write, with nearly the same signifi
cation:
étrºve
& Tuvas
er
ous
}
*3
érrive div
tool,
• *
,
ergºverse,
aw (Ionicë.)
w
-
-A
étrºvecrew av.
When the apodosis alone appears, the student will gene
rally find it easy to supply from the context the frequenta
tive protasis.
516 Both the subjunctive and optative may appear
in the protasis without any expression of the apodosis, and
often without any relative word. Their signification in this
usage is in strict accordance with their original meaning—
namely, the subjunctive commands or deliberates concern
ing that which is present: the optative wishes, or prays,
that something may become present.
0.
a trevowuev, YKováuevº iſoo uoi, Yépov
(Eurip. Hec. 505).
“Let us hasten, let us make all speed; lead me on,
old man.”
Interrogatively:
eſtwuev h guyêuev; ) tº opdaouev (Id. Ion, 758);
“Must we speak, or hold our peace? or what shall we do?"
b.
Without el:
d Traſ, yévolo
tratpos eūTuxérrepos,
To 3’ da\' époios' ka? Yévol' div og kakós
(Soph. Aj. 550).
“My son, mightest thou be more fortunate than thy father,
but like him in all other respects, and then thou wouldest
not be a bad man.”
With et or ws:
et uot yevo to pööyyos év /3paxior (Eurip. Hec. 830).
“O, if I had a voice in my arms ”
as 6 tdöe topov čAotto (Soph. Electr. 126).
“O that he who has done these things were destroyed!"
209
SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION.
517 In this sense the indicative is often used with ei,
el Yap, eifle, and especially in the case of digeMov, which
appears, either with or without these particles, and followed
by the infinitive. This presumes, like the corresponding
protasis (502), that the wish cannot be realized. Thus we
find:
--
effe orot rôte ovveyevöunv (Xen. Mem. 1, 2, § 46),
“O if I had been with you there!” (which I was not).
eff & pea’’Apyoºs uti čiar'rdoffat gxdqos
KöAxwy is alav kvavéas Xuatanyà?as !
(Eurip. Med. init.)
“O if the Argo had not been obliged (as it was) to fly
through the Symplegades to the Colchian land"
518 The mere wish is often expressed interrogatively
by the optative with trios div, “O how could it be done !” as:
trós du Juiv čuqavns
$py? Yevoluny &s º' Begbe Tpoor pºn;
(Soph. Phil. 531).
“O how could I show my gratitude by my actions !”
§ W.
The Imperative in Conditional Propositions.
519 The imperative differs very little in any of its
usages from the subjunctive.
520 It sometimes appears, like édu with the subjunc
tive, as the conditional protasis of the future; thus:
6átre ple, 8tti taxiata, tºas 'Atóao repriorw
(Hom. Il. xxiII, 71).
i.e. “the sooner you bury me, the sooner I shall pass the
gates of Hades,” edv ue as taxigºra 6d trus, TVAas A. as T.
repriorw.
Also with kai interposed; as:
Aaffé, kai eigel (Plato, Theatet. 154, c),
“take it, and you will know,” i.e. £av Aaſºns, eigel.
521 In its more common use, as a hortative, delibera
tive, or imperative form, we have already seen that the
subjunctive often takes the place of this mood, with this
difference, that except in prohibitions, when both moods are
D. G. G.
14
210
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
employed, the subjunctive is used for the first person, and the
imperative for the second. This appears most clearly when
they are both used in juxta-position, or antithesis; thus:
A. origita
B. got y' tº karapate own tº 'yw;
A. “Hold your tongue; i.e. you must hold your tongue.”
B. “What! must I hold my tongue for you?”
a korouev kolvi, Kai el K.T.A., duriaeye, kaſ got reſcopal
(Plato. Crito, 48).
“Let us consider the matter together, and if you can,
confute me, and I will give way.”
522 The imperative is often a mere exclamation, as in
eité, dye, ºpépe, ide, ičov, &c. And these imperatives are
often prefixed to the first person of the subjunctive to urge
the deliberation, thus:
ºpépe, tí got 36 katapayev;
“Come, what must I give you to eat!”
523 The future, which is the regular apodosis of the
subjunctive and imperative, is often used to express the
latter, chiefly, however, in interrogative-negative, and in
prohibitive sentences; as:
traßes, où a kévérôe; (Plat. Symp. 212, D).
“Slaves, go at once and see " (below, 540).
524 From the interchange of the imperative, sub
junctive, and future in other cases, arise some uses of the
former which may remind us of the fact (above, 293), that
the imperative differs from the indicative only in the form
of the person-endings. Thus, on the one hand, we find
constructions in which a question is followed by an impe
rative; such as:
olorff' wiv 6 pdorets, as draipopev x0ovds;
66morov juïv girov, où a travíčouev
(Eurip. Cycl. 131–3).
“Dost know what thou must do, in order that we may
sail away from this land? Furnish us with corn, of
which we are in want.”
Or by a prohibition; as:
olorſ' we uéteiffel kai gopwrépa paveſ;
td Xfmotd un got Aviſpa paivéa 60 trote
(Id. Med. 600, 1).
SYNTAX
OR
211
CONSTRUCTION.
“Dost know how thou must alter thy prayers and appear
wiser? Let not good things ever appear grievous to thee.”
But, on the other hand, we find that the future of the
relative clause in the question is attracted into the impera
tize which follows ; thus we have:
olorff obv 6 pāorov; unit' dirogaragóñs (3ta, K.T. A.
(Id. Hec. 225).
“Dost know what thou must do?—neither be torn away
by force,” &c.
And even with a sentence interposed:
I. olorðd vvv & uot yewéo-0w ;
6, orów to ornuaíveiv ráče.
I. degua roſs Éévotal Tpdates (Id. Iph. Taur, 1204).
I.
“Dost know what must be done for me?”
Th. “Thou must tell me this.”
I. “Put chains on the foreigners.”
The Latin comedian, from not understanding this idiom,
has endeavoured to express it by a transposition: tange sed
scin' quomodo (Plaut. Rud. III, 5, 18), which has misled
Bentley and other scholars.
525, We find the imperative, in deliberative interroga
tions, without any direct evidence of such an attraction; as:
tí obv; 3 troXAdkis épotº, keto 60 vöuos juïv;
(Plato, Legg. p. 801 D).
“What then?—according to my repeated question, must a
law be laid down 2"
This probably arises from a transition, by means of 3ri,
from the direct to the oblique oration. This transition is
distinctly seen in the following passages: laws &v eſtrotev,
3ri, 'Q Sékpates, un 0aduate to Aeyóueva (Plat. Crit.
50, c). By the side of the future : Xpri Šeća, 8t, ºv
uév čqtevrai, Tpos Tovs pin duvvopévovs kºrd a 0 to or av, oſs
3é yévvaſov K. T.A., Gvavtayajvatoi dir' autów oux d tº a a
(Thucyd. Iv, 92).
§ VI. The Infinitive as a Substitute for the Imperative.
526 The Infinitive, or adverbial mood, does not take
its place in the protasis, except as a substitute for the
Imperative. As an adverb, or secondary predicate, it is
14–2
212
SYNTAX
OR CONSTRUCTION.
appended to the finite verb, which contains the main pre
dication, as an explanatory adjunct (above, 468). In the
same way, however, as the gerundive, or inflected form of
the infinitive, assumes to itself a significance of obligation,
which is properly conveyed by the substantive-verb (above,
423), the earlier Greek writers use the infinitive, without
the substantive-verb on which it depends, as an imperative,
to express what must or ought to take place. Thus:
kal raûr' lºv
efore Aoyičov, kāv Ad/3ms p’ ºvevapiévov
ºdokeiv Eu' men pavriki pin8év ºppoveſv
(Soph. OEd. T. 462).
527 Sometimes also as the expression of a wish or
prayer; as: tº Zev čkyevérôa. Hot 'Abnvaſovs rioraoréal
(Herod. v., 105), where it cannot be said that the substan
tive verb is necessarily understood; for we might say in
English: “O that it might be allowed to me, &c.” and the
Latin utinam marks a similarly dependent clause.
§ VII.
The Negative Particles Mr. and O.J.
528 The distinction between un and ot, depends upon
their respective applicability to the different members of a
conditional proposition. For
Mn belongs to the protasis ;
OJ to the apodosis or to the categorical proposition; in
other words,
Mn negatives a supposition, i.e. it prohibits or forbids;
OW negatives an affirmation, i.e. it affirms that the case
is not so;
or, to express the rule according to the principles already
laid down, un is used in all those dependent sentences
which are connected by a relative or relative particle with
an indefinite antecedent expressed or understood, conse
quently, un is also used with the participle as secondary
predicate, and with the infinitive as representing an ad
verbial sentence; whereas ou is used in all other cases.
The following is a comprehensive example (Soph. Antig.
676):
éyò 3 &tws a pn Aéyés dp0ós rate
ovk &v Čvvaiunv unt' émigratumv Aéyew,
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
213
i.e. “but I neither could be able, nor may I know how to
speak to the effect (below, 602) that you are not right in
what you say.”
§ VIII. M.) in the Protasis.
529 The following are special examples of unin de
pendent sentences, implying an assumption or prohibition:
a.
Indicative: el pin yīyveral, “if it does not come to
pass,” and so of the other tenses.
b. Imperative: pin KAérre, “do not steal” (in general).
-
c. Subjunctive: pin k\évns (more rarely un, KAévels),
“do not steal” (this particular thing: above, 433);
éav um yévnrat, “if it shall not come to pass.”
d. Optative: pin yévoiro, “may it not come to pass"
=“O if it could be avoided !”
el un yévoiro, “if it were not to come to pass.”
e. Infinitive: 0eo roMºral, un pie àovaeías ruxelv, “let
me not incur slavery;”
To un Yevéo-0ai, “the supposition that it has not come to
pass.”
f. Participle: un öpów, “if he abstains from doing.”
Obs. Mn with the participle signifies “if not” (si mon),
and generally accompanies a positive apodosis; un oil with
the participle signifies “unless,” and is always attached to
a negative apodosis; thus:
3rav č' ſknital, rnvikaºt' eye, kakos
pm &póv čv env ráv6' 60' div on Not fleds
(Soph. (Ed. T. 76), i.e. si non faciam.
8vord Ayntos yap div
env roldvöe pin ou katoucteiptov ºpav
(Id. ibid. 12), i.e. nisi miserear.
On this abundance of negation see below, 530, Obs.
§ IX. OU in the Categorical Proposition or Apodosis.
530. The following examples will show the use of ov
in absolute negations.
a.
Indicative:
oux olds re écriv, “he is not able.”
214
SYNTAX
OR CONSTRUCTION.
b. Optative with div;
oux év yévoiro, “it would not (under given circum
stances) come to pass.”
c. Participle indicating a fact, i.e. a causal or concessive
Sentence:
ow pov, “as abstaining from doing,” either “because
he does it not” (615), or “although he does it not” (621).
Obs. In the direct sentence, a repetition of ou confirms
the negation; as:
dkovet 3 ovčev ovčels ováevös
(Eurip. Cycl. 120).
This pleonasm sometimes occurs as between two sen
tences; thus in the comparative uáAAov 7, the ow of the first
clause is repeated in the second; as:
fixei Yap & IIépons ovečv ri pāAAov ćr' muéas # ou kal
ér' Juéas (Herod. Iv, 118).
So also when un with the participle has a negative apodosis
(above, 529, Obs.), and when un with the infinitive follows
a doubly negative word (below, 603).
§ X. Ov and un after Relatives and Relative Particles.
531
OJ is used after relatives, when the antecedent
is definite; because in this case there is an affirmation; but
pin follows the relative when the antecedent is indefinite, be
cause in this case there is an hypothesis. Thus:
a.
Ös ou roleſ raúra = d ou rotºv raûra = &re ou rotºv
raúra = is, qui non facit hac.
b. 6s un roleſ Tavra = 6 pm trolºv raúra = si quis non
facit ha-c = qui hac non faciat (above, 413).
532 The same consideration qualifies the general rule
respecting the relative particle ei (529); thus:
a... rāqov meandels Tºe, káv pneels éâ
(Soph. Aj.
1184), de eo quod probabile est:
but
b., et rows flavévras oux éâs 6drrew trapºv (Id. ibid.
1131), de eo quod certum est—si, id quod facis, prohibes
quominus sepeliamus mortuos.
SYNTAX
OR
215
CONSTRUCTION.
533 The same applies also to adverbs of place; thus:
a. MéAAovo, Yap o', el Tºvče un Arièeis Yéov,
évraú6a réuvew, ev6d uri troº’ mºtov
ºpdos ºrporável—de loco mescio quo
(Soph. Electr. 379):
but
b.
iikov'rd o' àkwv čva Avrols
XaAkeiſuaqi
ºpograagaağae. tº' dravºpºrº Táng,
iv oute povnv oute tow uop priv |3potoº
&\leet—de loco certo et praisenti
(AEschyl. Prom. 20).
And so of other relative words (above, 396).
§ XI. Ov, when it negatives the primary notion of a word
or phrase.
534 Oi! is sometimes so closely connected with a word
or phrase, that it not only negatives it, but even affirms the
contrary. Thus we have: off pnu, not, “I do not say,”
but, “I say no,” nego; oux Utrioxvovna, “I refuse;” ov
6éAw, nolo; oux hkuota, praesertim ; ouk duelvov, “it is
better not ;” ou travv, omnino mon; ni ou 3rdavoris, “the pre
vention from breaking down;” i ou repreixois, “the
stoppage of the blockade,” &c. From these we must care
fully distinguish the hypothetical phrases: to un ötaxv0m
val, To pun trepiteixto 6mvat, &c. (529 e).
§ XII. Oi! and um in Interrogations.
535 As the direct question is inferentially equivalent
to the categorical negation, it will follow conversely that
whenever ou is found in an interrogation, a positive answer
is expected; thus:
āp' owk ºrtiv do flewis; nonne agrotat?
(“he is ill, is he not ?
Proculdubio
Yes").
The combination ovk ouv is very often used interroga
tively, and the inference implied is so distinctly affirmative,
that the note of interrogation is frequently omitted, and
oukouv; = nonne igitur? is considered as equivalent to
igitur, and the categorical oikovv, “therefore not,” is dis
tinguished from it by a change of accent.
216
SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION.
As Yap belongs to the categorical proposition (615), ii
vdp; expects an affirmative answer.
The combination &AAo ti -; “is there anything else
than—?” necessarily anticipates an affirmative response.
The n is very often omitted, and āAAoti alone is then equi
valent to nonne? as in Plato Resp. p. 369: áAAor yeapºds
Mévels, o 8é oikočduos, “of course one is a husbandman,
and the other a builder.”
536 If a mere hypothesis is called in question, the
answer expected is necessarily negative; thus:
a. "EAAnv row earl, “I suppose he is a Greek.”
b. our trov"EAAmv čart, “I suppose he is not a Greek."
Hence interrogatively:
c. * *rov "EAAnv art; num Graius est? i.e. “he is
not a Greek, is he? or, “he is not a Greek, I suppose."
“No!”
537 Since, therefore, ºn forbids or negatives an assump
tion, its appearance in an interrogation presumes a negative
reply; thus:
dpa uſi éortiv datevris; num agrotat? i.e. “he is not ill,
I suppose,” or “he is not ill, is he?”
In questions, ºn is often combined with ovv under the
form putov.
§ XIII. Mr. after Verbs of fearing, &c.
538 These interrogations with an and the indicative
mood, like the prohibitions and deprecations with un and
the subjunctive or optative (529 c, d), are appended to
verbs of fearing, with this difference:
a. If the object of our fear is regarded as certain, we
use the indicative.
b.
If uncertain, we use the subjunctive or optative.
Thus:
a.
[in dupotéptov juaptikapev, “we have not lost both,
have we?” Answer: “No 1"
But by preferring poſłougal, we do away with the nega
tive, so that poſłońual-un signifies forsitan, “perhaps;"
and poſłowpat-un duºpotépov juaprikapev = “I fear we
SYNTAX
º missed
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
217
both—it is but too probable” (Thucyd. III,
There is the same difference between poſłońual pm and
owk olò' et, as between forsitan and haud scio an : the
former signifies that it is probable; the latter that it is
unlikely; thus: oux àv olò' et évvatunv (Plato, Tim. p. 263)
= poſłougal pun ou 3.jvopal.
In the same way:
pui 36xnariv etxer' ék 6eów, “you had not a mere fantasm
sent from the gods, had you?” Answer: “No” But if
we prefix orkoreire, we annul the particle pin, which had
negatived the hypothesis, so that:
orkotrepre-pin 36know etxer' ék fletov
(Eurip. Helen. 119),
will signify, “look to it, if you had not some vision sent
from the gods”—i.e. “it is more than probable that you
had.”
b. un 6dvo, “let me not die"—nego suppositionem me
moriturum esse, vel pono me moriturum non esse.
8éðouka-un 6dvo, “I fear I shall die—it is but too pro
bable.”
Similarly: épn Čečolkéval um flavot, “he said he was
afraid he should die;” for the optative, being by nature an
indeterminate tense, is properly used after other past tenses,
(above, 292, 513; below, 607).
539 We may also say, poſłońual-un ow-64vo, “I fear
I shall not die;” eqoſłotunv-un ou-0dvolut, “I feared I
should not die,” according to 534.
§ XIV. Construction of oil ºff.
540 (a) OJ with the future or subjunctive in interro
gations.
When the interrogative ou is used with the future tense,
the result is a positive command (523); when it is used
with the subjunctive, the result is a deliberation nearly
amounting to a resolve (521). The former construction
most frequently occurs in the second person, the latter in the
first; as:
ou uéveſs; quin manes 2 “will you not remain?” i. e.
“stop !”
218
SYNTAx or CONSTRUCTION,
and it is expected that the person addressed will do so
(535);
oux to ; nonne iboº “shall I not go f" which implies,
“of course I shall.”
541 (b) Mri with the future indicative or aorist sub
junctive.
But if we prefix un to the future indicative or aorist
subjunctive, the result is, of course, a prohibition (529, c);
-
thus:
a. Aéðels ēē pnáčv ráv ćuol befoyuévov
(Eurip. Med. 804).
£3. GAA' éeptéra' undév čváees Airns
(Íd. Phoen. 385).
542, (c) The interrogative with où followed by the
prohibition with piſi.
Since, therefore, the interrogative ou commands, and ºn
without interrogation forbids, and that too with the same
inflexions—the future or subjunctive—both constructions
will be used when a command is followed by an equiva
lent prohibition; thus:
ow giya; untév távº' épéis kard ºrtóAw
(AEsch. Sept. c. Theb. 232).
543 (d) Interrogation and prohibition combined.
Generally, however, the command and prohibition are
brought under the influence of the same interrogation;
thus:
ow aſy' avče, unté àexíav dpeſs;
(Soph. Aj. 75).
tº beiva Aéao', oùxī avykAetores atóua,
kai ºn pediaeis avºis airytarovs Aéyovs;
(Eurip. Hippol. 498).
544 (e) OU and un coalesce.
Lastly, the Greeks were very fond of coupling the ov
and uri, and prefixing them to a single verb used interro
gatively, according to this rule: that ou un with the second
person of the future (a) conveyed a prohibition; while
with the other persons of the future (3), and with the
subjunctive (Y), où ºn enounced a categorical negation;
thus:
SYNTAX OR
a.
CONSTRUCTION.
219
oº un övoruevris Šael (p(\ois (Eurip. Med. 1120);
où pin ºrpooroforeis Xeſpa, flakyewares 3' tow (540),
pino éâoudpée poptav Triv onv ćuot (541);
(Id. Bacch. 343).
ow un ppevidaeis u', dAAd 8éopuos puyºv
.
cºore rôo' (540); # orot Taxiw dvagtpévo 3ſknv;
(516, a)
(Id. ibid. 792).
8. of got un uébévouat rore (Soph. El. 1052).
où rot un roté d'ék Tövő' éðpavov
'y.
& Yépov, drovrd tis &#ei (Id. QEd. C. 176).
kal rôvö’ drovo as ot; tı un Anq66 36Ap
(AEsch. Sept. c. Theb. 38).
oùre yap yiyveral oute yé yovev oveč obv un yévnTai
(Plat. Resp. 492, E).
545 This last construction was considered so entirely
equivalent to the future, that it was used as the apodosis
of éav and the subjunctive (502 II); thus:
#y vikriorwaev, où primore éo BaAworiv (Thucyd. Iv, 95).
CHAPTER IV.
ON CO-ORDINATE AND SUBORDINATE
SENTENCES.
§ I. Recapitulation and Definitions.
546 THE learner has been already taught that the
article, as the mark of definiteness, distinguishes the subject
and epithet from the predicate; that the relative with a
definite antecedent is tantamount to an adjective or epithet;
that nouns and participles, connected with the subject by
the substantive verb, and all finite tenses of verbs, are pri
mary predicates; that cases of nouns and participles con
nected with the subject through a primary predicate are
adverbial, or secondary predicates, and that there are ter
tiary predicates, or anticipations of distinct propositions, in
the latter case.
He has also seen that the relative, or
relative particle, with an indefinite antecedent, marks the
protasis of a conditional proposition, and he has been shown
how the negatives ou and un contribute to the greater dis
tinctness of these rules. It only remains that he should
now recognize these principles in their application to con
nected, but separate, sentences: for the previous investiga
tion has not presumed that there has been more than one
main proposition.
547 Connected sentences are either co-ordinate, or one
of them is subordinate to the other. The relative, with a defi
nite antecedent, forms an adjectival sentence dependent upon
the antecedent: the relative, with an indefinite antecedent,
forms an adjectival sentence subordinate to the antecedent
or apodosis. If these two sentences are, as has been hitherto
supposed, completed in the antecedent or apodotic clause,
they are considered to make one categorical or one hypothe
tical proposition, as the case may be. But if, as is the
case with the disjunctive hypothetical, there are distinct
alternatives, which require a conditional proposition to carry
them on to an apodosis, or if, as is the case with copulative
conjunctions, the two clauses stand on the same footing of
categorical predication, we have not one sentence, but two
co-ordinate sentences. And if, in any of the cases considered
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
221
in the preceding chapters, the sentence is adverbial, or
dependent upon a predicate already expressed, or if it
follows a former predication as a consequence, explains it as
a cause, or limits it by a concession, we call the sentence
subordinate.
548 According to these subdivisions, co-ordinate sen
tences are,
a.
b.
Copulative.
Disjunctive.
c.
Distributive.
And subordinate sentences are,
a. Temporal, when they are supplementary to the
tenses of the verb.
b.
Objective, when they are supplementary to the cases
of the noun.
c. Illative, or consecutive, when they follow a former
predication as a consequence.
d. Final, when they declare the end of what is pre
dicated.
e.
Causal, when they explain the cause of what is
asserted.
f.
Concessive, when they strengthen or limit by an
admission.
§ II. Copulative and Disjunctive Sentences.
549 Copulative and disjunctive sentences stand upon
very nearly the same footing; for every copulative sentence
is, to a certain extent, disjunctive, and vice versâ. Indeed,
in some cases, where we use a disjunctive formula, the
Greeks employ the closest copulative connexion, re-kai.
550 There are two modes of expressing the union of
distinct propositions: (1) By the use of a relative with its
indefinite antecedent, and then we signify, that, where there
is such an object, there also we find such another object;
as āvāpes Te Kai ºrtot, “where horses, there men;" (2)
When the enumeration is expressed by a repetition of the
same demonstrative or relative pronoun, as kal &věpes, ka?
frtol; or divāpes re ſtarot te: and here the first conjunc
tion may be omitted.
551 Practically there is no great difference between
the uses of these copulative conjunctions: kal and te alone
222
SYNTAx OR
CONSTRUCTION.
generally indicate mere addition: kal repeated gives an
emphasis to the enumeration: and re kai join the two
statements or objects so closely together that they may
be almost considered as one. As might be expected, the
former clause, with the indefinite re, is often less emphatic
than that which contains the kai. This is very apparent
in the phrases, rd re àAAa kat-àAAws re kat—which
means “especially," i.e. “as well in other matters not
worth mentioning, as” &c.
552. The commonest form of this disjunctive sentence
is that in which the members are connected by m—7,
(originally jë—rié), the former being sometimes strengthened
by rot. As n is a relative particle, originally identical
with kaſ, this may be considered as a construction strictly
analogous to kal—kat, though the meaning conveyed is
quite the converse: for kał &vêpes kai frtroi would mean,
“as well men, as horses,” quum viri, quum equi. But m
divêpes ºf frto would signify “either men or horses,” ubi
equi, ibi non viri. That a negative was implied appears
from the use of the Latin aut-haud in disjunctive sen
tences, and by the repetition of oil after m in negative com
parisons (530, Obs.). But that i does not itself contain
any negative signification is clear. For it is used as a
mere relative, quam, in positive comparisons, and is really
synonymous with the copulative conditional etre, by the
side of which it sometimes appears; except that the con
ditional force is more fully retained in cºre, which is fol
lowed by pri, while admits ow: cf. Soph. Antig. 38 (where
m could not stand):
kai beièeis Táxa
eſt' evyevris répukas eſt' éo.6A6v kakti.
AEschyl. Ag., 1374 (where it is a distinct protasis):
gº 8 aively ere ue Véyetv 66Aes, Guotov.
Eurip. Electr.
900 (where
is followed by
i):
6v efºre
ń
0ncºre
oriv d Traynv
d6es
;
.*.*.
ets
p
Tr
p
IIom. Il. II, 349 (where it is followed by h and ov):
'Yvºueval eſte Vedèos
réayers né kai ovki.
Soph. Aj. 178 (where etre follows #):
iſ fia kAvtov čvapov
-
Wrevo 6eſa', d'êuipois eſt' éAapnſłowials.
3.
SYNTAX OR
223
CONSTRUCTION.
553. In general, the student will observe, that, if the
disjunctive retains its conditional force, it is followed by
pri; if it merely states contradictory alternatives, by ov;
cf. AEsch. Eum. 168:
f
oru
*
7"
º
ei
-
3
a
w
r
Oikottos eu're
-
3:
Mr1, kpwov
tkmv,
with Thucyd. VI, 60: eſre dpa kai rā āvra ºnvºcal etre
w
Oue
554. The combination re-kai is used in the disjunctive
sentence, when it is intended to express that the two alter
natives present themselves in close combination; as in Hom.
Il. VIII, 168:
Tvèetºns &é &idvěixa peppnipušev
frtrovs Te o Tpéya kai évavti/3tov paxéraotai.
AEschyl. Ag. 807:
r
w
r
6
tº
r
yvºore 3e Xpovº otarevtſopewos
*
w
tov re 8tratos kal Tov
f
Troxly
-
9
dikaipos
-
olkovpouvra
troXu'rtov.
555 The comparative or superlative co-ordination of
Togoûrip (Togourov) -ãorp
º
is of the nature of a
copulative sentence with re-kai, though it sometimes
amounts to an illative, and sometimes to a causal sentence.
Thus Plat. Resp. II, p. 372, D: 3a p uéy a row to rāv
‘puxdkov ºpyov, to a ow tº a XoAñs Tºv &AAwv tra et at ns
ëv ein Čečuevov might be expressed by, “their work is the
greatest and therefore requires the greatest leisure;” or,
“ their work is so great as to require the greatest leisure.”
Without this mode of viewing the construction, the student
would fail to understand several passages in Thucydides.
Thus, dog kai follow oux fixtata = rogoûtº udurra in
I, 68: and ow8évos xeſpov = Tooroúrip travrov duelvov in VI,
89. In v1, 11, 6aº Kał, without any real antecedent, may
be rendered: “because,” or “inasmuch as,” and the parti
cles have the same meaning in v1, 92, where there is a sort
of antecedent in the particles aq6èpa and ikavíðs. In IV,
108: évévoruévois Tris 'A6mvatov Švvduetos étri to a o 0t ov
& a n to repov 8tepdvn, means “they were mistaken in the
power of the Athenians, by as much as that power after
wards appeared different from their notion of it,” i.e. the
emphasis falls on the preposition in 31 eqavn. In VII, 28:
224
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
tov trapdºoyov rocodrow toinorai is followed first by a
causal örov, and afterwards by an illative dio're.
556 The comparative clause with m is of the nature of
a disjunctive sentence, though the sentence, in which the
comparative appears, is in effect an antecedent: thus,
ovëév Kpelagov iſ pi\os gapnis, means, “where there is a
sure friend, there is nothing better.”
557 In the emphatic sense of “even,” “also,” the
Greeks used the copulative kaſ, where the Latin prefers the
disjunctive rel, or the compound et-iam. Sometimes, the
force of this kai is best expressed by throwing an emphasis
on the auxiliary in English; as in trós kał 8taxet, eité
(Eurip. Hippol. 1171); “say, how did he die?” In this
emphatic sense, kal, followed by other particles, has many
distinctive uses: thus we have, kal &m, kaf rep, kat rol, in
concessive sentences; kaº priv, in calling attention to a
statement; kal &m kai, in making an important addition;
and so forth.
558 "Eri, which, under the form et, is the commonest
copulative conjunction in Latin, generally appears in Greek
as a temporal particle only.
§ III.
Distributive Sentences.
559 Distributive sentences, which are generally in
some sense adversative also, are most frequently expressed
by the particles uév and 8é, signifying “first" and “second,”
when the opposition or distribution is in each case positive.
But when a negative in the first clause is followed by
a positive sentence, which corrects or explains it, the pro
per particles are ouk—da\d, just as in German we have
sondern instead of aber after nicht.
Thus we have in the
same passage (Eurip. Med. 555):
oux, fi gö kvíčel,-gov pév ex0aipov Aéxos
Kaivns 3é viſuqins inépp retànyuévos—
d'AA' as K. T. A.
560
One of the commonest forms of the distributive
sentence is that, which has been mentioned above (390),
when the article is used as a pronoun, for the purpose of
distributing a number of persons or things into different
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
225
classes. In this use, we often find routo pièv–Touro èé, for
To pièv–To 8é.
561 When pèv and 3é are appended to the disjunctive
#, the compound becomes a copulative particle: thus
riuév–73é, mean “both "–“and,” or, “as in the first place,
so in the second place.”
562 Although 3é is the proper and most usual anti
thesis to uév, other particles sometimes take its place when
the opposition is intended to be more distinct. Thus we
find roºt’ &AAo (Soph. OEd. C. 605) and Toºt' auths (Id.
Antig. 167), opposed to Tooto gév; and TAliv, Ye univ, dAAd,
and dAA' àuws, are opposed to pièv alone.
563 Aé is often placed in a clause which is opposed to
what precedes, although there may be no pièv in the first
clause (above, 390). This is particularly the case in the
Platonic phrase, to 8é, which means, “whereas, intruth,”—
“whereas, on the contrary,”—quum tamen (see Heindorf.
ad Theaetet. § 37).
564 If the same word, or a synonym, is repeated in
the second clause, 86 is also repeated, though there is no
introductory pév; thus Soph. (Ed. C. 1342:
doºr' év čáuotori roſari ools arrioro o' dywy,
arriorw
3'
éuavºróv.
565 We sometimes find that the introductory clause,
which contains the pév, is, strictly, speaking, dependent
upon that which follows with the 8é. Thus in Demosth.
Mid. p. 573: un roſvvv du pév eitrn ris trapdvoma oºrws
dpyićduevot paiverfle, év če Trotſ, un Aéyn Tpºws didketa fle,
the meaning is: “Do not, while you give such a manifesta
tion of your anger in the case of illegal proposals, exhibit
mildness of character in the case of those who act illegally
without speaking:” for the orator certainly does not wish
to deprecate the anger of the judges in the case of those
who made illegal speeches.
566 Connected with this usage and the preceding, we
find a double pév in the preceding or dependent clauses,
followed by a double őé in the apodosis, or quasi-apodosis.
Thus, in Plato (Apol. 28, E): beivá áv enveipyaguévos et
&re uév pie of dipxovires étatºrov, tdte pévow ékéivot rat
row £uevov, toº 3° 0éoù rétrovros, évraúða 3& Attopa
D. G. G.
15
226
SYNTAX
OR CONSTRUCTION.
riv ráčºv, it is clear that the two sentences with név are
dependent on those which follow with 3é.
567 As a further result of the same usage, we find
that 3e sometimes stands, as it were, arbitrarily in the
apodosis; as in Herod. v., 40: étré, Toivov replexöuevöv ge
dpéopew Tris éxes yuvaikos, gº de Tavra totee.
When uév stands by itself, without any corresponding
36, the latter, or some equivalent, is virtually implied, and
pév looks forward to the completion of the sentence, just as
ow looks back to what has been already said. Thus, when
Socrates is going to catechize Meno's slave, he asks the
master: "EAAny név čari Kai éAAnviče ; “he is a Greek, I
suppose, and talks Greek " (Plat. Meno, p. 82, B;) here an
et ée an is obviously implied: “if he is not, he will not
answer my purpose.” This is particularly obvious in the
combination, uév obv. Thus, in the answer travv učv ovv,
which is so common in the Platonic dialogues, there is a
manifest suspension of part of the sentence: “you are right
as to what you have said, but what follows?” (Ti &
gretta;) So also in the corrective uév obv, where the main
point is conceded, but some emphatic addition or correction
is appended to the concession; thus in AEsch. Ag. 1363:
Tač’ &v Čikatos riv, Utrepôtºws uév obv,
the justice is admitted, but its exceeding righteousness is
proclaimed. And in the comical passage, Aristoph. Eq.
-
910:
dropºvšāuevos & Ann' duoſ Tpos triv kepaxmu atovo,
the axAavrotréAns, by answering Guod uév obv, Šuot uéu
oùv, does not dissent from Kleon's servile proposal, but
only wishes that the humble office may be transferred
to himself.
568 In colloquial Greek, the combination uév ov
obtained a sort of ironical significance, equivalent to our
“O yes,” or, “no doubt" (Arist. Ran. 241), especially
with oi! prefixed (Id. ibid. 556).
569 The distributive sentence becomes emphatically
copulative, when oil ſtovov, or oux 6t, are opposed to d\\d
with or without Kai. Thus: o Xokpatns ov uovov goºds
jv, dAAd kał dyados, is equivalent to 6 S. goq6s re jv Kal
dyados.
SYNTAX
OR
227
CONSTRUCTION.
570 When for où advov we have oux àri or un öri,
there is an ellipse of Aéyw, or some such word, in the one
case, and of Aérye in the other. But the effect is the same.
So also, when the second clause contains a negation, as in
Dem. c. Tim. 702, 2: oux àti rāv čvtov directepmunu &v,
dAA’ ow?' év ščnv, “I do not only say that I should have
been deprived of my property, but I should not even have
been alive.” So in owy Śorov and oux oiov.
571 . If, however, we have oux àTws in the former
clause, it means “not only not ;” Demosth. c. Polycl.
1225, 12: ; Śē yń oux &Tws rival kaptov fiveykev, dAAd kal
to iſotop tréAttev: “not only did the earth bear no fruit,
but even the water failed.”
572 Sometimes the same opposition may be effected
by pri Ti ye āj: as in Dem. Ol. II, 24, 21: ovk vi ä’ autov
dpyouvra ováč tols pixois Titattew itép aurou ri toleſv, puri
Ti ye &n toſs fleoſs, “when a man is idle, not only can he
not call upon the gods to help him, but he cannot even
apply to his friends” (i.e. much less to the gods).
§ IV. Temporal Sentences.
573 The temporal sentence is, strictly speaking, a
periphrasis for the temporal adverb. Thus: “he came late,”
is equivalent to “he came when it was too late:” and so of
other explanatory additions to the time indicated by the
verb.
It has been mentioned, that all indeterminate tenses
presume such an addition (432).
Besides the adverb,
the cases of an inflected noun may be used to express a
point or duration of time (459); and the infinitive, with
the article and a preposition, may of course serve the same
purpose. Thus it is that it matters little whether we say,
év tº Adev autóv, or öre fixtev, tapeyevdunv.
574
The most common forms, however, of the tem
poral sentence, are those which are expressed by the parti
ciple, or by means of some relative particle.
575 Almost all those cases, in which the participle
can appear as a secondary predicate in the nominative case,
are instances of the temporal sentence.
576. a. The following express contemporary acts:
yeX6v eite, “he laughed and said,” or “when he said he
15–2
228
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
laughed;" raúra Aéyov čákpve, “when he said these
things he wept.”
The same may be remarked of participles used absolutely
(446,454): as énow kaffeſºovros, me dormiente, “while I
was sleeping.”
Sometimes the particles dua, autíka, eú00s, uérač, are
added to the participle: as in Herod. IX, 57: áua kara
AaBºvres Tpoorekéató a pi. Id. II, 158; uetašū dpvaawv
e Travorotºro.
577 b. The following express subsequent actions:
raºra troínoras, drégn: or in the absolute case, droëavóvros
Aapetov, ri Baaixeia dvexºpngev is Tov traiča Töv čkeſvow
Fépènv. Occasionally this secondary predication of an
antecedent action is so connected with the main verb as to
make, in fact, but one periphrastic tense; especially in the
use of éxa with the aorist participle: thus drudgas exei
róvávěpa, which is literally “having dishonoured the man,
he keeps him so,” (i.e. dishonoured), is equivalent to “he
keeps dishonouring,” or “continually dishonours.” Some
verbs, such as piéAAw, “I am minded;” 6éAw, “I am
willing;” Botſ\opal, “I desire;” make a sort of periphrastic
future with the infinitive mood.
578 There are certain verbs, which are always used
with the participle of the verb, to the action of which they
communicate, in fact, only an accessary value. Such are
Aavödvo, rvyxdvo, Yaipw, pödvo, and oixouai. Thus (a)
Xavóóva, raûra totôv, “when I do these things I escape
the notice of (1) myself (i.e. I do so unconsciously); (2)
others (i.e. I do so secretly).” (b) Tuxov trapóvres, “when
they arrived there, they just hit the mark,” i.e. they were
there just at the time. (c) Xaipovow étrawouvres, “when
they praise, they are glad," i.e. they praise gladly. (d)
340mv diſpurduevos, “when I arrived, I was before them,” i.e.
I arrived first. (e) otyeral treaſov, “when he has fallen,
he is gone,” i.e. he has fallen away. So that the main
verb may always be rendered by an adverb.
579 Relative particles give a precise expression to
every sort of temporal sentence. The antecedent is some
times expressed, and sometimes contained in the tense of
the verb. The following are examples of the use of these
particles:
SYNTAX OR
229
CONSTRUCTION.
a. Contemporary acts (eodem tempore) are expressed
by: 8te, rivika “when,” antec. Tore, rnvíka ; fluos, wº,
“while, as long as,” antec. Thuos, Tétos.
6 €raºpos étreyévero (sc. rāte), &re ord ºpaqes.
muos, p(\at kat' oikov 6 £évos (posſ,
tnuos flupaios Affov, as Juás Adºpa
(Soph. Trachin. 531, 533).
580 b. Repeated acts (toties, quoties): 3rote, 8te, als,
8Tws, generally without any antecedent: of present and
future acts, with &v and the subjunctive; of past acts, with
the optative alone (Art. 514).
a.
Tøre on, 6tav & Xpm towns, eutvYéſs, or
t
t
3.
-
w
w
f
w
e
ev
w
e/
-
v
*
w
3/
*
*
r
6tav & Xpm tourians, eutvYmorets.
ormvík' &v 060s
TAoûv mułv etkm, rnvika.00' oppoſueffa
(Soph. Phil. 463).
ék Yap 'Opérrao riots a geta 'Arpetoao
&Tarot' &v
riſ8 form
(Hom. Od. 1, 41).
|3. Utrepôāv Ti v The muerépas oikías 6 elye Qūdvews,
drát év date, 6tarpiðot (Antiph. p. 113, 3).
581, c. Subsequent acts (postguam): éireſ,
reiði,
é; ºv, dip' ow.
étré, éé péyyos Atov karépôito (AEsch. Pers. 377).
toMAoſs uév de vuktépots ovetpact
{uvein', diſp' où"rep traſs émos areíAas otpatów
'Iadvov yńv olxera (Id. ibid. 177).
582 d. Continued action (usque dum): €ws, tos ov,
els ö, als, Éate, péxpts or àxpts ov, &c.
If the act is past and certain, we put the indicative in
the adverbial sentence; as:
Tololorëe tdoras evºpóvas oveſpagi
$vvexópnv čvatnvos, is Te 8m tatp:
&rAnu Yeyoveſv vuktíqoit' oveſpata
(AEsch. Prom. 655).
But if the act is future and probable, we use the sub
junctive with div; as:
230
SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION.
ëyu de Triv trapova'av avt.Ariora, Twymy
is T' &v Aids ºppovnua Awqºmon x6Aov
(AEsch. Prom. 376).
583 e. Previous acts (priusquam): "piv h . The
particle Tpſv, which is a locative form of rpg, belongs
properly to the first member of the comparison, and ought
to be followed by some relative, such as j = quam, or, more
fully, i öre = quam quum. But, in accordance with Greek
brachylogy, the adverbial relative is generally omitted, so
that Tpſv, which is properly an antecedent, is used as a
relative". Learners will observe, therefore, that "piv and
Tpiv i öre are considered as identical. In the adverbial
sentence after Tpiv we may use either the indicative, sub
junctive, optative, or infinitive.
a. The indicative; of acts certain and past, when ſpiv =
“until :”
nyóunv 8' dump
datov uéytotos tav čkeſ Tpív pol tüxn
Tod? &méarn (Soph. (Ed. T. 775).
Positively:
Negatirely :
oùk ºv daénu' ow8év–
Tpiv éyò a ptariv
goeſ a kpdaeis irtov dreaudrov
(AEsch. Prom. 479).
6. The subjunctive; only after a negative sentence, of
an act both probable and future, almost always with the
particle àv.
After a future:
oux, Taiſoroual
Tpiv du ré tºv atov köptov atrioto Tékvov
(Soph. (Ed. C. 1040).
i.e. “I will not leave off, till I shall have made you master
of your children,” so that ſpiv čv = Tpiv h 6tav, or éay ºn
Tpôtepov”.
* This catachresis has gone so far, that Trpiv frequently appears with
an antecedent trpótepov, e.g. Thucyd. 11, 65. Plat. Resp. p. 402, B.
* So Diphilus (apud Athen. p. 291, B):
où yap Bačišw trpátepov du un öokupidow,
whence we may explain the well-known ellipse in St. Paul (ad Thess II,
2, 3): 3rt, Čdiv un &A0m ti droaragia Trpiotov, ſoil 300arat Adelv 0
Kūpios].
SYNTAX
OR CONSTRUCTION.
231
After an imperative:
pin Tpokaraytyvoork’, 6 Trétep,
Tpºv &v y' dkoworms duºporéptov
(Arist. Vesp. 919).
After an optative in the apodosis, interrogatively:
Tís &v číknv Kpfvetev ñ Yvoin Adyov
Tpiv du Tap' duq'oïv uv6ov čkudón rapn;
(Eurip. Heracl. 180.)
IIpy with the subjunctive, but without àv, is poetical.
After an indicative:
elööri & ovéév ćpte
Tpiv Tupi bepuſ, toda ris irporation
(Soph. Antig. 620).
After an imperative:
um atévače Tplv p.d6ms (Id. Phil. 917).
Y. The optative; in oratione obliquá, after an optative,
and of a past act, almost always without &v3.
After a negative sentence, if the oratio directa has passed
into the oblique; as: dºrnydpevs undéva BáAAeiv, Tplv Kºpos
êu Tàng flein (Xen. Cyrop. 1, 4, § 14). €3éovro um direAtely
Tphy dºv drayayot (Id. Amab. VII, 7, § 57).
After an optative; as:
&Aoto ºff to Tpiv udflou (Soph. Phil. 961).
8. The infinitive; whenever the subsequent act is re
garded as an object; as :
Tpiv h orvupiša, ºpewyov.
Aéâat 66Aw arol ºrph, 0aveſv & /30ſ-oua,
(Eurip. Alc. 281).
5 N v
f
ovde 77 avore Tau
f
* , ,
; S.
w
-
X6\ov, adºp' olòa, Tplv Katao knvaí riva
(Id. Med. 92).
* The question, whether trpiv čv with the optative is allowable, is the
same as that respecting the correctness of 6tav with the optative; for
Tpiv &v= Trpiv h 6tav. If therefore for 3rav, in AFschylus, Pers. 450,
we ought, as most critics think, to write &T' ék; in the same way, Trpiv
div, Štreičáv, &c., whenever they are construed with the optative, must
be changed into ºrptv, Tet, &c. Wide Blomf. et G. Dindorf. ad AEschyli
locum; L. Dindorf, ad Xen. Cyrop. 1, 3, § 11. IV, 5. § 36. Hellen. II,
3. § 48. II, 4, § 18. v., 4, §47.
232
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
The different tenses of the infinitive are thus used:
Tpiv čeitwelv = priusquam coenem;
Tpiv Četvnaai = priusquam caenarero;
Tpiv Čečeitrunkéval = priusquam a caená surrewero.
§ W. Objective Sentences.
584 An objective sentence is, properly speaking, the
epexegesis or lengthened form of an objective case; and it is
intimately connected with the indirect question, or the cor
relative of the interrogation. Thus, if the question were
Tí Épus durixavos ; the answer might be (Soph. Antig. 79):
to Big Troxltov påv ºpw durixavos :
and if the question were, ri Aéyes; the answer might be
Aéyw, 3rt duapravels: if Tís écriv; the answer might be
ouk olda ögºris earív: if trios ºokeſ: ; the answer might be
§okeſ uo ws "Hºpatorros XaAkevel. But if the object is
something within the immediate experience of the subject,
the participle may be used, and we may write olda Yévviſ
oras, for oièa 6+ y&uvnora.
Hence there are three forms of the objective sentence:
(A) with the infinitive; (B) with the indirect interrogation
expressed by 6t, or as and the finite verb; (C) with the
participle.
585 (A) An objective sentence is very frequently
expressed by the infinitive mood, which is made depend
ent upon the objective case governed by the main verb.
Thus we may say,
r
-
£3ouxomaſ ore
8éopaſ orov
AéYew,
w
r
8okeſ orot
where in each case the infinitive expresses the action desired
of, or determined on, by the object of the verb.
586 This infinitive is particularly in its place after
verbs expressing the natural constitution of a subject, its
duty, its fitness, its use: as o divöpwros répuke pixeiv,
homo natus est ad amandum, “man is naturally qualified
for loving.” To which the converse is, 6 dvdporos répuke
um pixeiv.
In the same way a qualifying adjective, as primary predi
cate, may be followed by an explanatory infinitive; thus:
ow detvös éort Aéyéiv, dAA’ dowvatos oriyâv.
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
233
587 If the verb, which thus governs the infinitive, is
impersonal, the infinitive, instead of being a mere supple
ment to the objective case, becomes the subject of the verb.
Thus, Tpéret pixely, “it is proper to love” =“loving is
proper (381,c).” Connected with this is the usage of the
verbal in -Téos, and the attraction of Ötzalóv čari into &aids
eipt (423, 424).
588 If the subject of the infinitive is the same as that
of the verb on which the infinitive depends, it is not neces
sary or usual to repeat it. Thus we say, 6oºowa Aéyev,
not floºollaí ue Aéyew. If it is expressed, it remains in the
nominative even by the side of an accusative, as in Thucyd.
Iv, 28: oux épn autos, dAA' ékeſvov atparnyev.
589 If what would be a predicate of the first class
(416) in the direct sentence, is connected with the object of
a verb in the infinitive, it is expressed in the case of the
object: Thus:
N. d’AAéčavôpos épaakeveival Aids vićs, dicebat SE esse
Jocis filium.
G. §§éovro adrow elva. Tpoôjuov, “they intreated him
to be of good cheer.”
D. §§earſ uot yewérôal edbašuovº, licet mihi esse beato.
A. Keweiſo ore elva. Tpdóvuov, jubeo te alacrem esse.
590 (B) When the objective sentence is a known
fact, or an expression of opinion, it is common to substi
tute 3ri or ws with a finite verb for this construction with
the infinitive. After determinate tenses, the verb which
follows 3rt will be in the indicative mood; after indetermi
nate tenses it is frequently in the optative; but the indica
tive is sometimes retained, especially in the case of the
future.
It seems to be a matter of choice whether we shall
write the infinitive with the objective case, or the finite
verb with 3rt; but the construction with ws is limited to
those cases in which we have rather an assumption than a
fact. Thus we might say, either tov kaxov kayadov divöpa
evèatuova elvaí pnui, or duoxo'yū ūri 6 kaAokayatos évêaiuov
éortſ: and either Utréaxov (3ombedu pot ºeuv, or Utréaxov
3rt Bombed uot hºol, or hēet. But in such phrases as vouſ
Čovorty as "Hipatotos XaAkevet for x2Akeveiv Tów "Hºpalatov,
or 343d AAe Tów Kºpov trpos Tov doexpov, as étriflovXeſo
avrò, or riflowAeſsiv adrā, there is not so much a state
234
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
ment of fact as an allegation of erroneous belief or false
assertion.
To the same class belong the indirect interrogations, ous
ołęa órrus értív, oux jeew 6atus ein.
591 (C) In those cases, in which the completed action
is the object of the main verb, the participle very often
takes the place of the infinitive, as well as of the finite
verb with 6T1 in the objective sentence. This is particu
larly observable after verbs which signify perception, know
ledge, experience, recollection, demonstration, completion,
and acquiescence: for all these verbs refer to the state
which results from an action rather than to the action
itself. The case is that of the object.
N. fºetv toºs taſtas Buntous yevviſoras.
G. ſo Bmoral traitoté pov avko pavrovvros ;
D. orjvoted oro riotºmuévip.
A. c. N. of otpatnyol optov ou katopflouvres kai Tows
otpatiairas dxflouévous.
592 With some of these verbs the use of the participle
and infinitive produces a contrast of meaning. Thus, pai
veral elva, means “he appears with regard to being," i.e.
he appears to be (ridetur);
but: paivetal ºv, “he appears and he is,” i.e. he mani
festly is, (apparet, constat).
and : alaxivoua toteſv, “I am ashamed with regard to
doing,” i. e. I am restrained by shame from doing;
but ; alo-Yùvouai Toitov, “I do it and I am ashamed,” i.e.
I am ashamed of doing.
These verbs, however, especially olòa, may exhibit the
construction with 6T1, or with ws after a negation: and
some of them, especially droſo, may revert to the objective
sentence expressed by the accusative and infinitive.
Thus:
, a. jatovto ot"EA\nves 6T1 6/3aoixeds v roſs grewoºdpols
€111.
b.
ove’ exeſvo &uuauai deſu, as oux, travres div0pwrot
roſtov Tuxeſv d'Étagougi.
c.
drovo kał &AAa €00m Toxxd rotaúra elva.
In case (a), the optative is also found in dependent rela
tive clauses, as éAeść got 67 m dºos pépoi eis Triv TóAw,
SYNTAX
OR
235
CONSTRUCTION.
#varep opºny, mihi narrabat, viam ducere ad urbem quam
viderem.
593 The objective sentence may involve the apodosis
of a conditional proposition, and then äv may appear by the
side of the verb or participle in any one of the three forms,
whether the protasis is expressed or not. Thus we may
say :
pno" 3alaeu,
q'naiv 8tt öðgei
ëpm 8worew
9
/
º
éav ti exn.
et tº ºxoi.
3166val div
&Ti 3180in div
pnor, 3.66was
Čv
png iv 6th 66téov čv
w
er
5 N / N.
w
sy
et
ºpnal booval du
*
el Yev.
Tu
3/
ºw
q'naiv 3ri 330key dº, f * * **X*
594
So also in the case of those verbs which are fol
lowed by the participle. Thus: eſpírko Tairnv påvnv čv
yevouévnv Tów Trapévrov kaków drax\ayniv (Isocr. Areop.
16), for 8T, airn povn &v Yévoito Graxxayſ: and so
throughout the four cases we might write:
1 olòd ae 8tóóvra,
et ri yes,
8,8697-’
&
2
360
ovta,
śāv tº #xns,
•S
=
r
w
9/
>
*
sy
3
4
(!.
4 b.
§ VI.
*/
r
et3/ tº exots,
8toovt.
3 w 2 av,
ºf
*
toovt
av, et*/ Ti •retxes,
N a
3
ºf
36vt' àv,
et ri Šayes.
Illative or Consecutive Sentences.
595 An illative sentence is properly a relative clause
explanatory of an emphatic pronoun. It may be expressed
by the relative itself, as in Soph. Antig. 220:
ovk gotiv outw pºpos 6s 8aveſv på.
But most commonly the particle date is used in the
relative clause, followed either by the infinitive or by the
indicative. Thus, we may say either oùros dudn'tós a riv,
doºre tróAepov divºr, eipſiums aipeia-flat, “he is so foolish as to
prefer war to peace:” or oºrws dudnºrós éorthw (date troxenov
duri eipmuns aipeirai, “he is so foolish, that he prefers war
to peace.”
236
596
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
The difference of these two constructions is best
shown by their negative expression: for we write, in the
former case, date ºn eprivnv duti troAéuov aſpeſo 0al, show
ing that the result is looked upon as a general one, common
to the person mentioned with many others: but in the latter
case we write, date oux aipeira, etprivnv avT, Toxéuov,
showing that the result is regarded as a categorical asser
tion respecting the particular person.
597 In this sense &are may be used with the impera
tive, especially in such phrases as date flappel, “wherefore
be of good courage” (Plat. Euthyd. 275, c. Xen. Cyr. 1,
3, § 18).
598 If a comparative or superlative adjective appears
in the antecedent clause, the emphatic pronoun is necessa
rily omitted; as:
(1.
vetºtepot eloru º Gorre elčéval oftov tratéptov êortépmvral.
b. p.Aotiuotatos ºv, date travta virouelva row étraweſ
orða evexa.
599
This is also the case when olds re with the finite
verb is substituted for date. Thus, for rotoords Čortiv date
wroteſv taura, we write oiós re eart troteſv taura, substi
tuting the relative for the relative and its antecedent, and
transferring the former to the antecedent clause, so as to
make it a mere predication (above, 413).
600 Conversely, when oios intervenes between its an
tecedent rowbros and another relative sentence, the inter
mediate sentence may be omitted. Thus, we may write:
ow Yap on approvía ye totoutdv čotiv (; direukačets auriv, for
Totovtov oſov čkeſvá čotiv (; direikačeis autiv (above, 408).
601 When the illation or consequence is regarded as
an effect, the particle date may be omitted before the in
finitive, as in AFschyl. Ag. 250:
8tka toſs uév trafloºr pateſv rifférel rd pleaxov,
where the main verb étrippére is neuter, and uabeiv to uéAAov
expresses the effect of learning by experience or suffering.
602 If the effect is represented as an object feared,
denied, or prohibited, the infinitive is preceded by un, to
puri, or date puri. Here prevention is regarded as the effect
or consequence of fear, denial, or prohibition; so that the
SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION.
237
force of this construction may be regarded as partly objec
tive and partly final, though it is formally illative. For
ouk &v dpvotumv to pāv (Soph. Phil. 118) is merely objec
tive := touro, to pāv (above, 584): but oùk dºv dipvotumu
To un öpāv, or to un ou 3pāv would have conveyed an in
ference, with some expression of an end. The following
are examples:
a. Arist. Eq. 572:
root' direvijaavt’ &v, eſt' ripvoovro um retrokéval,
i.e. “they would deny, and the effect of their denial would
be that they had not fallen.”
b. Herod. 1, 158: 'Aptorróðikos érye un troinorai rajra
Kupatovs, i.e. “he hindered them, and the effect was
that they did not do these things.”
c. Soph. Antig. 264:
6eous dpkwuoreſv
To purite epāoa, K. T. A.
i.e. “to swear by the gods to the effect that we had nei
ther done the deed,” &c.
d.
Eurip. Iph. T. 1348:
q630s 3' jv date pin tévêa. tröða,
i.e. “there was fear, and, as a consequence, caution, to
the effect that the sheet was not wetted by the sea.”
603 If the main clause contains a negation, or interro
gation, so as to become doubly negative, the particle oil is
appended to un in the illative clause (above, 530, Obs.);
thus:
Plato, Men. 89, D: oux divaríðepal pun ou kaxos Aéys
orðat.
Soph. Trach. 90:
ovëév čAAetwºrw to un ow
Trāorav rv0éorðat rovë' dx10etav répi.
Xen. Anab. III, 1, § 13: tí Čuroödv ºn oux, droda
veſv;
Sometimes 6Tws un with the indicative is substituted for
pr; ot, with the infinitive; see (528).
604 The illative clause is also regularly connected
with that on which it depends by the particles àpa, Toſyap,
roſvvv, &c. The particle ouv is indicative rather of con
238
SYNTAX
OR CONSTRUCTION.
tinuation and retrospect (above, 567) than of inference:
and, in general, it should be rendered rather “accordingly,”
“as was said,” “to proceed,” than “therefore” which is
properly expressed by dpa, and its compounds. It is to be
remarked, however, that in their origin the ideas of con
tinuation and inference are identical: ápa signifies “far
ther” (75, 76); and in Thucyd. v1, 89, Kaº dir' éketvov stands
for dpa in the conclusion of a regular syllogism.
§ VII. Final Sentences.
605 The end or intention of an action may be regarded
sometimes as an object, or as an inferential consequence.
It is not surprising, therefore, that the final sentence should
so often approximate in form to the objective or illative
sentence. Thus, such objective constructions as Bouxoua,
Aéyew, C &v6potos répuke pixelv may be regarded as express
ing the end no less than the object of action. And an
illative clause with date may be tantamount to the ex
pression of an end or effect.
606 There are three forms of the final sentence. (a)
When the end is expressed by the infinitive. (b) When it
is expressed by the future participle. (c) When it is ex
pressed by a finite verb dependent on some relative or nega
tive particle. Thus we may say, with very little difference
of meaning:
(a) *A0ev détkeſv, or as d8treſv.
(b) #A0ev deukma ov, or as dótkifotov.
(c) Adev (va, 6tros, als, or poet. Sºppa dāikiforo,
where the first is, strictly speaking, an objective sentence,
and the second a temporal sentence.
*
The third form is that
which is specially appropriated to the expression of an end.
In this form again, we have, as in the objective sentence,
a reference to the indirect interrogation. For ſixtev ºva dāi
kno'ot might be an answer to the question did tº ſixòev;
607. It follows from the nature of the subjunctive and
optative moods (above, 292, 513, 538), that the subjunctive
will be used after determinate, and the optative after inde
terminate, tenses in these final clauses: thus we have:
Ypdºpw, Ypſi\lºw, Yéypada, Iva udôns,
#ypaq ov, Ypava, Śweypºpew, two ſidbols;
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
239
and in the subjunctive sentences:
oùk Exw, oux Éw brot Tpdtronal,
ouk eixon,
eq Xov 6trol Tpatroiumv.
Ouk
608 When the final sentence expresses an eventual
conclusion, i.e. one in which an additional hypothesis is
virtually contained, we may subjoin &v to as or öttws, but
not to ºva. This chiefly occurs after imperative sentences:
thus, Soph. Electr. 1495, 6:
xoſpel S’ &v0a trep katéktaves
tratepa Tov duov als &v év Taitº 0avns,
“in order that you may, as by going there you will, die in
the very place where you murdered him.” The optative is
substituted for the subjunctive after past tenses, as in Herod.
1, 75,91, 99, 110. Similarly, we find the optative after
another optative: Soph. OEnomaus, Fr. 423: Yevotuav aleros
vvitéras as āv Totaffeinv, “would I were an eagle, in
order that I might, as in that case I should, fly over the
sea.”
But as this eventual conclusion seldom needs to be
expressed, the omission of the dºv is more common, especially
with the optative.
609 When the end is negative, we either place un
after ſva, 6tws, &c., or substitute it for these particles. And
here we can always distinguish between the objective and
the final sentence, both when the infinitive is used and when
these particles appear: for ot, BoſNouai Aéyéiv, Aéyo 6+
oùx outws ëxel, Sokeſ uot dis owk &v ein Taita, are expres
sions of an object considered as a fact : but flowAopal p ij
Aéyéiv, Ypſipo (va un A0ms, are expressions of an end or
purpose.
The illative sentence sometimes stands on the same foot
ing as the final (above, 602). Thus, when we have :
6tros od travtov roſtov Štiplexntéov, ou Aéya (Xen. Hier. 9.
§ 1), we have merely an objective sentence (above, 590);
but when we have : 6tros or un Aéyés dp06s tdöe, oùk &v
ovvaiumv Aéyev, (Soph. Antig. 685, above (528)), we must
understand this as illative, i.e. in effect, partly objective
and partly final.
610. When the negative end is an eventual one, we may
insert &v after as or öttws, as in the former case; but in
this case also we must not use ºva, nor can we insert the
240
SYNTAX
&v after un only.
OR CONSTRUCTION.
The following is an example of the
optative so used; Aeschyl. Agam. 363:
tºr' 'AAešāvöpp
Teſvovira traxal točov, Štros du
prºte "po kapoº pint” witép àotpww
BéAok ºxidiov orknvetev.
611 . The final sentences, like the prohibitive sentences
with un (above, 529), are, by their nature, hypothetical
clauses: as, therefore, we may say un KAévels as well as
puri KAévys, we may say also, öpa 6Tws un kAéveis, and
even åttws um KAévets without a previous imperative.
612 The infinitive and future indicative with ép' or
ép 5 re - étrº Toſorde date or étrº tourº ép' º Te, may
express the condition, or end proposed as the result of an
action. The negative, when required, is always un and
not ow. Thus, Thucyd. 1, 103: śvvéºnorav, q & Te Ātagu
ěk tims IIeSotovviſorov kal uměétrote étiſłriorov.ral auths.
Plato, Apol. 29 c : dºpteuév re ºr route pévrot eq' £re
punkét év raúrn Tři Čntrfore &latp:/8ew pºnde pixo~opeſv.
613 We sometimes find that a subjunctive and op
tative both depend upon a verb in a determinate tense:
here the subjunctive denotes the first, and the optative the
second, or ulterior consequence: thus in Thucyd. III, 22:
Tapavioxov of IIAaTains ºppvºrous, 6tws do apm to anuela
toſs troXeuíois fi kai ºn 3ontolev, “to make the enemies
lights unintelligible,” which was the first consequence; and
“to prevent the Thebans from coming to the aid of their
friends,” which was an ulterior consequence, resulting from
the former one.
614 If the end is not possible, or assumed to be so, as
in the fourth case of conditional propositions (502, Iv), the
final clause is expressed by the indicative mood; as in
Soph. (Ed. T. 1386:
el Tris akovojans ºr ºv
wnyms ºf drov ſppayuds, oux àv éoxöunv
to pun 'trokMeſoral rotuov &0\tov ćuas,
iv riv rvºpäds Te Kał KAſtov pnéév.
SYNTAX
241
OR CONSTRUCTION.
§ VIII. Causal Sentences.
615 The causal sentence contains the expression of
some contemporary or antecedent fact, which explains or
accounts for the main statement. Accordingly, the causal
sentence may amount to a temporal sentence, expressed (a)
by the participle (576, 577), or (b) by the particles signify
ing postguam (581). But it may also be expressed by the
emphatic particle ye (c) in combination with dipa, or (d)
after a relative: or (e) by the relative with durí, óid, ºvera,
&c. The following are examples of each class of causal
sentences :
616 a. Participle:
Aéyo &é tovë eveka, (3ov\duevos 80%al got 8trep £uot (Plat.
Phaedon. p. 102, D).
Obs. 1. The participles in the phrases tí Bovāduevos, tº
Laflav, ri traffaiv, are all causal.
Obs. 2. If the causal sentence involves a negation, we
use oil and not uſi; as: oil touria as toºto, dyabós el (above,
530 c).
Obs. 3. When the cause is stated as a matter of opinion,
we prefix to the participle expressing the cause, whether it
be in an absolute case, or in agreement with the subject, the
relative particle is, ºrte, árs, āre ori, oia, otov (compare
the similar objective sentences, 590). Thus:
wis ourét évrov gºv rékvov, ppóvriče 37
(Eurip. Med. 1311):
“since your children no longer exist, form your plans
accordingly.” &re &n ovv oil travu tº ropos ºv d 'Erun
6ews &Aabev aurov karavaMaio as tas ovvduets eis ra &Aoya.
(Plato, Protag. p. 321 B), i.e., “forasmuch, however, as
Epimetheus was not at all (534) a wise man, he unconsci
ously (578) exhausted all the endowments on the brute
creation.”
617.
b.
Particles signifying postguam :
víkn 8', 4treitep a tre+, Šutréðws uévo,
(AEschyl. Ag. 827).
618 c. The particle ye="verily" combined with āpa
= “therefore,” or “further,” is written yap. This combina
tion does not differ very much in signification from yoºv
D. G. G.
16
242
SYNTAx OR
CONSTRUCTION.
ye obv. Tàp signifies: “the fact is,” “in fact,” “as the case
stands;" it may often be rendered “for,” but this English
particle is much less extensive in its applications. Toov
signifies: “at all events,” “at any rate,” “if it is not so in
other cases, it is so in this;" it may also be rendered “for,”
but in still fewer instances than Yap. Immediately follow
ing kaſ, the particle yap often introduces a sentence, with
the meaning, “and in fact,” et projects. In the same sense it
is frequently placed after dAAd and dAA’ ow. The collocation
ow Yap &v is often used to introduce a contradictory alterna
tive, as: oº Yap &v čeºp' indumv, “I should not otherwise
have come hither.” With the interrogative, Yap expresses
the effect of something observed; thus: ri yap orov čupa
avvrérnke; (Eurip. Med. 689,) “ah! why is thine eye
bedimmed ?" The following passage will show the slight
difference between Yap and étreſ:
où Yáp ev duetépg Yvalug Aſpas
otraore Béatriv dol av
(Poſ/30s, dyntop peXéov' & tel dvtaxng' div tuvov
aporévov yévvº. (Eurip. Med. 424):
i.e. “the fact is, that Phoebus did not bestow the gift of lyric
poetry on our sex: since, if he had, we should have given
the males song for song.” But yap might have been writ
ten for étreſ, cf. A.sch. Prom. 333: travros Yap ou retres
viv' ou Yap eitriflis, “the fact is, you will altogether fail to
persuade him : indeed, he is not easily persuaded.” See
Porson, ad Eurip. Med. 139, 140. Tap is often placed
first with an explanatory clause, which is sometimes fol
lowed by otv, as in Herod. VI, 11 : étri šupoº Yap drums
exeral juïv to Tpriyuata—vºv ºv, K. T. A.
619 d. Te alone is sometimes nearly equivalent to
yap, especially when it follows uév: before Mév, or univ, it
simply conveys an asseveration. But the use of ye in
causal sentences is chiefly after the relative, to which it
gives the same sense as the Latin quippe qui. Thus:
of ye Tov piſaravr' dué
outws driuws. Tarpíčos éâwôoſuévov
ouk Goxov ovo' huvvav
(Soph. (Ed. C. 428);
i. e. “for they did not maintain or defend me.”
SYNTAX
620
e.
OR
243
CONSTRUCTION.
otiveka, for Tourov čveka &rt; duff ºv, for
divºrº rotºrwy &rt (above, 407) are common forms for the
expression of the causal sentence; as,
étroikteipw *é viv
60ouvek' &rn ovykaré(evKrai kakſ,
(Soph. Aj. 123).
The connexion between the causal and the illative sentence
is best shown by the transition from the use of Yap, yoºv,
&c. in the former, to that of &pa, Toiyap, oùv, &c. in the
latter.
§ IX.
Concessive Sentences.
621. The concessive sentence differs from the hypothe
tical clause in the same way as et oux éâs differs from et
an égs, namely, as an assertion of fact differs from a mere
assumption; but we sometimes find conditional clauses
used in a concessive sense, just as etiamsi may approxi
mate in meaning to quamguam : and in a lively and vivid
style the assumption may be stated as a fact past and gone;
thus, kal &m = “even now,” or “just now,” may be used
with the perfect indicative in the hurried statement of an
hypothesis; e. g.: kal &m Teóvãot ris ué &é£eral troAis
(Eurip. Med. 386); i.e. “they are just now dead (= suppose
them dead); what city will receive me?” The commonest
mode of expressing our “although” in Greek is by the
participle, either alone (530 c), or followed by rep (in the
poets), or preceded by kai rep. The student must be
careful not to suppose that kat rep, in itself, signifies
“although.” This fancy is the cause of the common blun
der of placing kaf tep before a finite verb. The participle,
which alone occurs in this combination, expresses the con
cession, and kai Tep means, “even very much ;” like the
Latin quam-vis, quantum-cis, “as much as you please.” If
a negative is required, it must be ow. The concessive
sentence is sometimes strengthened by äuws, eita, reira,
“nevertheless,” which, though belonging to the verb, are
sometimes, apparently, attached to the participle. Thus:
Tiflow Yuvači, kai tep ow a répywv, Šutos
(AEsch. Sept. c. Theb. 709).
kgyº a'ikvoºga, ka? Yvvm rep oùo', 'ſuws
(Eurip. Orest, 679).
16–2
244
SYNTAX
OR
CONSTRUCTION.
622 The concession is often expressed by kat rol, “of
a truth,” which is generally used with the finite verb, in
the sense “and yet;” but is sometimes construed with the
participle, like kai rep. Thus:
kai to papév Yé tov dowvatov eval, dAA' Suws, K. T. A.
(Plat. Phaedon. p. 68, E).
ovće uot duplexéws to II. Traketov véuera, kai Toi orogoº,
trapa poros eipnuévov (Id. Protag. p. 339, c).
623
For kaf rot, in both its constructions, the Attic
writers idiomatically employ Kai Tavra, which may be
rendered “withal,” “all the while.”
a. Like kaf tep, with the participle:
"Oumpos—otre ix0 ſaw aurous érrià, kal rajra éti fla
Aattºn &vras, otte épôoſs ºpéaow (Plat. Resp. p. 404, B),
“although they were living by the sea.”
After the participle:
vºv Youv rexeſpncras, ovéév čv kai rajra (Plat. Resp.
p. 341, c), “now at any rate you have made the attempt,
being nobody all the while,” or, “although you are no
body.”
Followed by Šuws:
kai Tavra tpels detaias Tpd{avres, duws paré riuás rapa
volunorai (Thucyd. III, 66).
b.
Like kat Tot with the finite verb :
Koſºpws ék uéowv apkva udrov ºpovaev (AEsch.
Eumen. 112), “and yet,” (or “and withal") “he has lept
lightly from the midst of the nets.”
With an adjective kai Taura means: “and that too,” or
kai raora
“ and withal.”
We must not confuse kai rajra with kdkeſvo, which is
used with the participle in Plato Resp. p. 442, c.
§ X. Conclusion. Irregularities of Construction.
624 Syntax, as a part of Grammar, is concerned only
with those constructions which are according to rule. Ir
regular or ungrammatical constructions, which arise from
haste, carelessness, or colloquial usage, must be pointed out
by the teacher, when they occur. The following are the
chief anomalies, which are found in the Greek authors.
245
SYNTAX OR CONSTRUCTION.
625 Anacoluthon (divako'Aov6ov), or non-sequence, is
when the end of a sentence does not correspond to the
beginning, and generally arises from a change in the mode
of expression, as if the writer had fogotten how he began;
thus: aroſłAévas Yap irpos roorov rôv aróAov, Édoğe pol
TraykaAos elva (Plato, Legg. p. 686, D).
626. A syndeton (dorſvöetov), or non-conjunction, is
when two really connected sentences follow without any
particle of connexion, whether copulative or adversative.
This omission is generally designed to produce an abrupt
emphasis. It is most common in lyric poetry.
627 Ellipse (#AAervis), or suppression, is when a word
or phrase, which is grammatically necessary for the com
pletion of a sentence, is so easily understood from the in
flexions or construction that it is omitted without creating
any ambiguity. Thus, if we say śrutte‘to troXAds, we
readily understand TAriyas. If we say of TáAal, td. Tpív,
every one supplies évôptotrol, Tpdyuata (402). Such words
as 636s, yn, &c. are constantly suppressed with feminine
adjectives or pronouns; as: Tiěe étröpeweto, ſi èpnuos, &c.
So also the neuter article with a genitive case, as: Ta Tův
Bečv, “all that belongs to or proceeds from the gods.”
There is sometimes a suppression of the apodosis of a con
ditional proposition, when it is directly opposed to another
alternative, as in Plat. Protag. p. 325, D: éav pew ékov ret
0ntai et éé pri, K. T. A., “if the child obeys willingly, all
is well—if not, they compel him.” Sometimes there is only
a quasi-ellipse in this case, as in Thucyd. III, 44, which
ought to be read: #v Te Yap droprivo Távv doukouvras ad
toſs, ou 3rd routo kai dirokreſval keyeſoro, #v Te kal Xov
rds tº Évyyvalums (scil. dropriva aurows), elev, “let that
pass, what of that ?”
Aposiopesis (drooruitnois) is a kind of ellipse. Thus we
omit the imperative in Soph. Antig. 577: un rpuſ?ds éti !
and in the corresponding English, “no more loitering !”
628 Brachylogy (8paxvAoyia), or brevity of expres
sion, is when something is formally omitted, but really in
cluded in some other part of the sentence from which it
may be supplied. This is of very frequent occurrence in
Greek, as in other languages. Thus in AEsch. Ag. 364:
kai row uév firew, Tov 3 étrétopépeu, kakov kaktov &M\o
w
y
f
-
f
246
SYNTAx OR
CONSTRUCTION.
Trnua we have to supply, after fixeiv, the words ºrnua
kakov pépovra, which are suggested by what follows.
One of the most important kinds of brachylogy is the
zeugma (Čevyua), when a particular verb, which is pro
perly applicable only to one part of the sentence, is made
generally applicable to the whole context. Thus in Pind.
O. 1, 88: Aew & Otvoudov (3tav trapdevou Te orivevvov, the
meaning is, “he conquered the mighty OEnomaus, and ob
tained the virgin as his bride,” so that éryev must be sup
plied for the second clause. By another species of brachy
logy we have contractions of the sentence; as in Thucyd.
II, 59: oikte oraºppov, Aagóvras, where the noun and its
epithet must be repeated in the accusative after Aaffèvras.
629 Pleonasm (TAeovaruds), or redundance of phrase
ology, which is the converse of brachylogy, can hardly be
considered as a grammatical irregularity. Omissions may
produce an ungrammatical structure, but superfluities leave
the syntax as it was. The figura etymologica (464) very
often amounts to a pleonasm. Repetitions of synonyms,
such as taxw addis, taxa tows, secondary predications of
the main predicate, such as éqn Aéytov, and repetitions in
a negative form, such as ovy firiota GAAd pºdºigta, all
belong to this class.
630 Hyperbaton (ºrépſ3arov), or inversion, is when
words are placed out of their natural order. Plato uses
this term in speaking of the transposition of the word uév
in a passage of Simonides (Protag. p. 343, E), and exempli
fies the thing in Resp. p. 358, E: trepi Yap rivos &v uáA
Aov toxNaxis tis vow ºxov xaſpot Aéywv kal dkovov; where
troxAdkis belongs to the participles at the end of the sen
tence. The hyperbaton invariably takes place when there
is a brachylogy of opposition, as in AEsch. Prom. 276:
Tpos &AAot' &AAov trnuovº Tportúvel, “calamity sits down
now by one man, now by another” (äAAote uév ºpds
&AAov, &AAote éé Trpos &A\ov).
PART VI.
METRE.
§ I. Definitions.
631 RHYTHM (jv0.16s, numerus), is a certain symmetry
produced by a methodical arrangement of words according
to their long and short syllables, and by a recurrence of an
emphasis at intervals. If the rhythm is not regulated by
fixed laws, it is said to be prosaic (soluta, orationis mu
merus). If the emphasis recurs according to a definite
measure, the rhythm becomes metre (uérpov). Every
recurrence of the emphasis is called a metre, and those col
lections of metres, which recur as distinct wholes, are called
verses (a rixot, versus).
632 The emphasis on which the metre depends, is
called the ictus, because the time was marked by a stamp
of the foot, and when the emphatic and unemphatic parts
of the metre are contradistinguished, they are called the
arsis (dports) and thesis (0éois) respectively, i.e. the raising
and lowering of the voice.
633 . It has been already mentioned (34) that a short
syllable is considered as one mora, or time, and that a long
syllable has two of such mora.
634. It is customary to call every division of time,
from two short syllables up to eight mora, in certain com
binations, by the name of a foot; thus we have :
Of two syllables:
Pyrrhichius,
Iambus,
Trochaeus, or
Choreus,
v V,
of two mora.
r
Aoyous,
– V,
Towarde,
three mora.
º
Spondaeus,
— —,
Of three syllables:
Tribrachys,
\ \, \, ,
Dactylus,
as Adyos,
v –,
- Q \, ,
Anapaestus,
V. V - ,
Amphibrachys, J – v,
-
Totºrovs,
four morae.
Aéyere,
Turrete,
Tapuſov,
four mora.
Šuotye,
three morae.
-
248
METRE.
Creticus, or
Amphimacer, - V - , as traovortov, of five morae.
2.
Bacchius;.
v — —,
Shavris,
Antibacchius, – — v,
Tvrtovori,
Molossus,
Tvrtóvrov, six morae.
— — —,
Of four syllables:
Proceleusmaticus, vvvv, drórouos, four morae.
Paton primus,
--, -, -, Tavrátopos, five mora.
Paton secundus, v – ov, Štúrrero,
Papon tertius,
\ \ – v, érétvºrro,
Pazon quartus, \ \ºv-, Boped&ov,
Ionicus a minore, ºv--, 3aoixetov, six mora.
Ionicus a majore, --~~, reporétroAts, –
Diiambus,
\ – v-, divočºvois,
Ditrochaeus,
– v –v, Šköoffévra,
-
-
-
-
Choriambus,
‘...." ----, dºxº~.
-
iambus),
Antispastus,
v––v, dućptn.ua,
Epitritus primus, v---, dvaxynitov, seven mora.
Epitritus secundus, -9––, 8va rvXojvrov
Epitritus tertius, ––v-, tropporépw
Epitritus quartus, –––v, avutpdroovori,
Dispondeus,
----, knpux6évrov, eight mora.
Although the student will meet with this nomenclature
everywhere, and must therefore be acquainted with it,
there can be no doubt that it points to a classification,
which is not only unnecessary, but erroneous. Indeed, it
-
-
would not be too much to say, that all the difficulties which
beset the study of metre arise from the original blunder of
giving the name foot, indiscriminately, to a mere arsis or
thesis, and to a complete metre. While, therefore, in the
following remarks, it is thought necessary to retain this
nomenclature for certain combinations of syllables, care will
be taken to make as little use as possible of the term foot
in speaking of them.
635 If in any verse the regular course of the rhythm
is preceded by an unemphatic syllable, whether long or
short, or by a Pyrrhichius, this is called an anacrusis, or
249
METRE.
“back-stroke.”
If the anacrusis extends to three or four
mora, it is called a basis. It is customary to mark the
onward course of the ictus by the acute accent, that of the
back-stroke by the grave, and the basis by the two cross
ing one another; thus the Asclepiadean verse is marked:
Mâcenás atavis || 6dite | régibus ||.
The Alcaic:
Vidés ut | altà ||stét nice candidum ||.
If the rhythm is supposed to be imperfect, or redundant,
to the same extent at the end of the verse, the metre is said
to be catalectic, or hyper-catalectic. Thus the Saturnian
measure, or tripudiatio, which is common to old Latin with
nearly all languages, properly begins with an anacrusis; e.g.:
Ma | lúm da|bünt Meltélli || Nació poſáta ||.
The king was in his párlour || cointing |oiſt his
móney ||.
And the common pentameter consists of two catalectic
tripodia, as compared with the accompanying hexame
ter, which is acatalectic ; e.g.:
Grátulor| CEchalilám titullis accédere | réstris ||
Victorém cicta || sticeubuisse querór ||.
636 Rhythms are divided into three classes, according
to the ratio between the arsis and the thesis.
lf the ratio
is +, they are called equal; if #, they are termed double;
if #, they are designated hemiolian (intéAlos, sesquialter)
rhythms. To these some add the epitrite rhythms, in
which the ratio is #.
637 The dactyl and anapast furnish equal rhythms
for — = v v.
The iambus and trochee furnish double rhythms; for
v : — :: 1 : 2, and — : v :: 2 : 1.
The cretic and paeonic rhythms are hemiolian; for
— v : — :: 3 : 2.
-
But practically, all metre may be considered as made up
of equal or double rhythms; i.e. the ratio of the arsis to the
250
METRE,
thesis is always, in reality, either 1 : 1 or 2 : l ; and
even the double rhythms are so arranged metrically that the
result is the equal ratio.
638 We shall begin, therefore, with the primitive
equal rhythms, i.e. the dactylic, and show how the others
are successively derived from and assimilated to these.
§ II. Equal Rhythms.
A. Dactylic Verse.
639 The only dactylic rhythm, which appears in long
systems of single lines, is called the Hearameter, because it
contains six metres, or repetitions of the ictus. In these
metres, the arsis is always a long syllable; the thesis may
be either one long or two short syllables (i.e. the foot, as
it is called in the ordinary nomenclature, may be either a
dactyl or a spondee), except in the fifth metre, which, as a
general rule, will take the latter, and in the sixth, which
must take the former alternative, i. e. the fifth will, in
nearly every case, be a dactyl, and the sixth will, in every
case, be a spondee. The following are examples:
Töv 3’ diraueiſłóuevos ºrporépn tróðas dri's 'Axi\Aeſs
+ v v |+ v v |+ v v |+ v v |+ v J |+–
ToMAds 3 ip6tuovs Navyds "Aièi Tpoſavlev
+–|--|--|- v J |+ v v |+–
oùveka Tov Xpwonv itſuno' dpnthpa
+ J J |+— |+ – |+–|+— |+—
As the sixth metre always terminates the system, the
quantity of the last syllable is not taken into account, or is
common, as it is called. In Homer, dactyls are more usual
than spondees in any one of the first five feet. In the
fifth foot the spondee is of very rare occurrence.
640 It is considered almost essential to the harmony
of a line that some one or more of its metres should be
divided between different words. This division is called a
Capsura, or “cutting.” The half of a metre is technically
called a Hemimer (muluepés), and the most usual and pleas
ing capsuras, which divide the third and fourth metres
251
METRE.
respectively, are called the penthemimeral and hepthemime
ral caesuras.
641 In the dactylic hexameter there is generally a
penthemimeral capsura, as in all the lines quoted above;
sometimes also a hepthemimeral capsura, as in the first two
of those lines.
642 Sometimes a sort of penthemimeral capsura is
effected by dividing a dactyl in the third metre between a
trochee-whether constituting a whole word, or forming
its last two syllables, and a short syllable at the begin
ning of a word. There are three instances of this in the first
six lines of the Iliad, and the practice is very common
throughout the poem. The two species are given in the
consecutive lines:
Juſv uév fleo doſev 'ONiſutta èquat' exovires
ékºréporal IIpiduoud tróAlv et 3 oikač iréadai
643 As the first syllable of every metre necessarily has
the ictus, we often find in Homer that a syllable naturally
short is made long, in consequence of its belonging to the
arsis. This is particularly the case when there is a caesura
also. As an example of both we may take :
a
r
z
f
*
--
q)ſ×e kwortyvnre kougai re ue 36s re uot frtrovs.
644 Many peculiarities of Homeric versification are
due to the loss of an original digamma (above, 18, j): thus
it is certain that Il. 1, 193:
•r
t
• Q2
er
w
r
w
w
w
dws & raû0' ºppoive kard ºppéva kai kata 6vudv,
was written and pronounced originally
&Fos C raû0' ºpuaive, K. T. A. (above, 170.)
645 Not only does custom require, that, at the close
of a dactylic system, the dactyl should be represented by a
spondee, or indeed by a trochee, in which the thesis is re
presented bya single syllable, or even a single time; but the
ictus alone may occasionally suffice for the close of a set of
dactylic metres. This is particularly, the case with the
dactylic penthemimer; and a particular class of poems,
252
METRE.
the Elegiac, is written in complete Hexameter lines followed
alternately by Hexameters consisting of two penthemimers.
It is the fashion to call these clipt Hexameters by the
name of Pentameters ; but this is decidedly erroneous; for
the arsis occurs six times in the second, no less than in the
first line of the elegiac couplet, and there is no reason for
supposing that the omission of the thesis, after the penthe
mimeral casura, can alter the measurement of the line,
which depends on the repetitions of the arsis. Example:
axiuata 3' &pxnais Tóra unt Trépev, 3a'a' évi travrºp
küuata roleira, Xetuati vić daori
+ v v |+ –| + : v \ |+ v v |+ v v | + - ||
+ J J |+ – + ||+ v v |+ v v |+||.
646 From the custom of finishing off the hexameter line
with a spondee, which in the elegiac line was represented
by a long syllable only, arose the practice of counting dac
tylic rhythms by dipodia, in which there was only a single
arsis to each pair of feet. The simplest form of this dacty
lic dipodia is the Adonius, which finishes off the Sapphic
stanza. But it very often appears as a catalectic dipodia,
i.e. as a triemimer, in which case it is called a choriambus,
and sometimes whole systems of dactylic verse are repre
sented by choriambi. The following examples will show
the successive steps in the process:
a. Simple Adonius, or dactylic dipodia,
trötvia
6vudv
+ v v |——||.
b. Two dipodiae:
douplexes Xapteorora xexièof
+ v v |— v v |+ v v |——||.
c.
Penthemimer:
év če Barovoidèns
+v v |— v v || 1 ||.
d.
Hephthemimer:
Tavra pév as āv d &nuos étas
+ v v | – Q - |+ v v |—||.
6.
Hexameter divided into three dipodiae, with a basis
253
METRE.
prefixed to each : the first two are called Glyconei, and the
third Pherecrateus :
yovvowpat o' éAaqºnſłóAe
+—||+v v |— v J.
£av0) waſ Atos dyptºv
---|-- ~ v |— v. C.
8éortow "Aprepa 6mptov
-*—|| 1 J v | ––
Hexameter of dipodiae, without a change in the last
f.
foot :
Môo' dye KaNAióta, 697atep Atos
+ v v |– v v |+ v v | – 9 º'
w
*
*
3.
-
apx epatov
r
*
*
3
*/
3 tuepov
etrew w, eart
+ v v |— v J |+ v v |– v v
juvov, kal Xaptévta Tíðet Xopov
+–|— v J |+ v v |– 9 v |.
g. Two dipodiae with basis prefixed, the former dipodia
appearing as triemimer or choriambus: this is called the
Asclepiadean verse:
ev
w
*
r
•
#A0es ék
a
r
-
Treparov yas
r
º
éAeqavºrſvav
+v ||+ v v |—||+v V | – v v
Aaffav Tó {{q}eos Xpwoodétav čxov
&—|| 1 J J |—||+ v v |– º – ||.
h. Two triemimeral or imperfect dipodiae precede the
complete dipodia in the trimeter of dipodiae :
r
f
*".... •
w
v
*/
/
Téyye rveiſuova Foºve' to Yap datpov reputéAAéral
-*—||+ v v |—||+ v v |—|| + v v |- v \,
&AAo ‘pureiſans Tpdtepov &évêpeov dutréAw
-*— Q |+ C v |—|| 1 J J |—||+ v v |– 9 v
pinflèv
-
B. Anapaestic Verse.
647 The anacrusis gave rise to another form of dac
tylic verse, which derived its name Anapaest (dvantato), from
the same circumstance as the anacrusis itself, namely, from
the back-stroke in the rhythm. The dactylic ictus, pre
254
METRE.
ceded by an anacrusis of two short syllables, was employed
as a suitable expression of the marching step. And, alter
nating with dactyls and spondees, anapaestic dipodiae were
found to be a convenient vehicle for martial music.
There
are two peculiarities about this verse which establish its
origin, (1) that the system, whether long or short, is always
terminated by a catalectic dipodia, i.e. by a long syllable
after a pure anapaest, so that the cadence was always that
of the dactylic hexameter; (2) that before this termination
there was no division of lines marked by a common quan
tity in the concluding syllables, but one continuous sequence
of metres: this was called the Synaphea, and indicates the
secondary and incomplete nature of the anapaest itself.
648 The most usual anapaestic system is the Dimeter,
which consists of longer or shorter collections of perfect
dipodiae, either in pairs or single metres, followed by a pair
of dipodiae, the last of which is catalectic. This catalectic
dimeter is called a Paraemiac. There is only one ictus in
each dipodia, and this falls on the long syllable of the first
foot in the metre. As a result of this rhythmical arran
ment, it was desirable that every dipodia should be de
tached, i.e. there should be no casura between two dipodiae.
This, however, is not necessary in the Paraemiac, in which
an attempt is made to imitate the cadence of the dactylic
hexameter. But in the Paramiac it is necessary that the
last foot of the last complete dipodia should be an anapaest,
unless the anapaest appears in the catalectic dipodia. An
other consequence of the dactylic origin of Anapaestic verse
is observable in the rules of quantity to which it is subject.
For here, as in the Homeric Hexameter, even the Attic
poets introduce open vowels and diphthongs, i.e. long
vowels and diphthongs in the ultima are short before
vowels in the next word. . The following example may
suffice to show the principles of this metre:
3ékarov pew ros té?’ ‘Tel IIpiduov
v J +|v < –||v < 4- 9 O – || pure dimeter.
péyas duričikos
v J + v v – || pure basis.
30póvov Atóðev, kal ºtakrit Tpov
v v - v v – ||--|-dipodia.
ſ two
spondees in second
METRE.
255
Tuns, dxupov (ºyos 'Arpetētov
– +|- C – |+ v v |--|| only one anapaest.
atóAov 'Apyetwv xixiovaſtav
v v--|--|- v J ||——||
Do.
Tmorè dro Xºpas
+ v v |--| dactylic basis.
ripav orpartóriv apwydiv
— + v v – ||— v +|—|| paroemiac.
649 The anapaestic Tetrameter catalectic, which is of
constant occurrence in the Greek Comedies, consists of a
Dimeter followed by a Paroemiac. It does not differ in
principle from the regular succession of Dimeters, but the
rules for its structure admit of fewer exceptions. For
example, the sequence – v J C v — , which is of rare
occurrence in the regular set of Dimeters, never appears in
the Tetrameter. The spondaic Paroemaic, which is occa
sionally found in the regular system, is never allowed in
the Tetrameter. In general, dactyls seldom appear in the
second foot of the dipodia; but sequences of dactyls may
appear in the Tetrameter, no less than in the series of Dime
ters. The following may serve as examples:
ei uév tis dump Töv dpxatov koppeočičdakaAos juás
+ – |\ v – || + –|--|--|v v – ||v v +|—||
aMA 6AoAwfare pawouévaloriv rais dpxatawaw Abijvais
- J - ||— v v ||+ v v |——||+–|--||v v +|—||
3rt orwppovikos koux divorros éatmöna as épMudpet
v v- J J – || + v v |--|--|--||v v-| – ||.
650 In the case of the anapaest, no less than in that
of the dactyl, the thesis is occasionally represented by a
single long syllable. It is usual to term this mutilated
anapaestic dipodia a foot, i.e. the Ionicus a minore, so called
in contradistinction to a certain form of the choriambic
rhythm cum anacrusi, which was termed the Ionicus a ma
jore. The origination of this metre is shewn in the following
lines, where the anapaests appear by the side of the Ionics:
"Aatas dro yás
r
JJ- J J -|
256
METRE.
tepov TuđAov duevara, Bodø
J J - | – || J J + | – || J J +| – ||
Bpouſe tróvov ſºv «duatów T' ev
J J +| J J +|—|| J J +|—||
kduatov Baxxtov evačouéva+1fledv
—
J. J. --|-||J J +|—|| J J +|- ||.
In the following the anapaests appear after the Ionici:
which however are preceded by a long anapaestic Parodos;
retrépakev uév 6 treprétto\ts #&n
J. J.--|| J J +| – || J J +|—||
Bao (Aetos atpatos eis duritropov yeſtova xapaw
f
r
f
f
f
J J +| – || J J +| – || J J + | – || J J + |—||
Avočéaup axe6tº Topóuov duetvas
J J - || – || J J +| – || J J +|—||
'A6apuavtſeos "EAAas
J J - J J +|—||
woxwºongov 68torua Čºyov dupl/3axºv auxevi révrov
J J - J J +|-|| J J +|J J – ||+ v v | – – ||.
§ III.
A.
Double Rhythms.
Trochaic Verse.
651 By the omission of the second mora of the thesis,
the dactyl becomes a trochee; by the omission of the first
mora of the thesis, the anapaest becomes an iambus. There
is every reason to believe, that, as the dactyl is antecedent
to the anapaest, so is the trochee to the Iambus.
652 The simplest and oldest form of trochaic verse is
the Ithyphallicus or tripudiatio, in which the ictus recurred
three times, as in:
Tavrpoqos
trexelds
+ v | + v |+ C ||
kappetal Yap jön
+ J |+ v |+ —||.
653 With an anacrusis, two or more couplets of this
constitute the Saturnian verse of the ancient Italians (635),
257
METRE.
654. But at a very early period, trochees were arranged
in dipodiae with a single ictus to each, which necessarily
fell on the first syllable.
The commonest arrangement was
that called the Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic, in which two
complete dipodiae are followed by two dipodiae incomplete,
i.e. by a Ankºbios, as it was termed. The scheme of this
metre is as follows:
l
2
3
ºf:
-
5
4
7
6."
8
z
+J
— v || + J
— v ||| + v | – v || + v |—||
ar
& J C v v v || 0 v \ |\ v v || 0 vol v vollovo
r
J–|
V V -
Vv -
a. In the case of proper names a dactyl may appear in
the first, second, third, fifth, or sixth place.
b. If the last word is a cretic, or the 7th foot a tri
brach, the 6th cannot be either a spondee or an anapaest.
c. And if the first dipodia terminates with a word,
accompanied by a pause in the sense, the second place will
only admit the trochee or tribrach.
d. The first pair of dipodiae must terminate without
Caesura.
The following may suffice as examples:
et Tá8 to0, yńs āvaro'a ºrnade uſi ore &s ppgoal
+ J | – J ||+ v |– J ||+ v | – J ||+ v |—||
kouros et a trovčaſs retroi60s aſ ore ordſ ovoiv 6aveſv
f
f
f
f
+ J — — ||+ J|— —|| + J |— – || + v |—||
kä6' 6 Bpónios, ºs ºuotye paiveral, Šćav Aéyo
+ J J J J ||+ v |– J ||+ v |— – || + v ||—||
£ºyyováv tº unv, IIvadènv re róv ráðe Évvěpávrd uo
+ J | – J||+ v v | – J ||+ v |— – ||+ v |—||
655 The trochaic dipodia, played a very important
part in the structure of Greek choral poetry, and at a very
early period was regarded as a metrical unit, equivalent
rhythmically to a dactyl. The process was the same as
that by which the choriambus was formed from the dactylic
dipodia; namely, the latter half of the thesis was either
not expressed or disregarded. Even the original arrange
D. G. G.
258
METRE.
ment of trochees, as single feet each containing a double
rhythm, presumed that an ictus might represent a trochee,
and the cretic therefore might stand for two successive
trochees in the Saturnius.
In fact, any thesis in the Satur
nius, except the last, might be omitted at pleasure: it was
only necessary that there should be a tripudiatio, or triple
recurrence of the arsis. A fortiori, therefore, in the tro
chaic dipodia, which constituted only a single metre and
admitted only a single ictus, the thesis of the second foot
might be disregarded. And we find from the first that it
was considered a matter of indifference, whether this second
foot was a spondee or a trochee. So frequently, at last,
was the spondee substituted for the trochee, that the
Romans, who imitated the later Greek rhythms, invariably
placed a spondee in the second foot of the trochaic dipodia.
To this mode of considering the trochaic dipodia, which
was the foundation of hemiolian rhythms, we must return,
after first discussing the other class of double rhythms.
B.
Iambic Verse.
656 Although the trochee, like its parent the dactyl,
was used as a distinct metre, each foot containing an arsis
and thesis, the iambus, like its parent the anapaest, always
appears in dipodia, the second member of which received
the ictus. So that, from the first, it represented an equal
rather than a double rhythm. As the second foot in the
trochaic dipodia, so the first foot in the iambic dipodia,
might almost always be a spondee: and in the longer sys
tems of iambic verse, a dactyl might generally appear for
this spondee where the trochaic verse admitted an anapaest,
and rice versä.
657 The most important, and perhaps the oldest
species of iambic verse, was the Trimeter Acatalectic or
Senarius, which contained three dipodia. The scheme of
this metre, as it appeared in the dialogues of the Greek
tragedians, is as follows:
l
2
3
4
5
6
v–
v 4.
J- | U+
v— 1v• v \ |\ \0 v || v v - |v < \ |\ \, \!
- V_w v
v \v -
- V.v v
259
METRE.
a. In the case of proper names an anapaest may appear
in any place except the last.
b. These licenses in the structure of the iambic dipodia
are qualified by the casura.
a. Every senarius ought properly to have either the
penthemimeral or the hephthemimeral casura, i.e. the third
or the fourth foot ought to be divided between two words.
The third foot is very rarely included within a word, and
there is hardly an instance in which both the third and
-
-
fourth feet are contained within a word.
An elision some
times produces a quasi-capsura.
£8. When the caesura takes place in the tribrach, it should
be between the first and second syllables, i.e. before the
ictus on the second syllable.
'y. The dactyl in the third place is limited to the case,
when its first syllable is in the penthemimeral caesura, or is
a monosyllabic word.
8. There should not be any casura in the fifth foot, if
this is a spondee. In other words, if the last word of
the verse is a cretic, it must be preceded by a monosylla
ble or a short syllable. This is called the rule respecting
the pause.
e. The anapaest, allowed in the first foot, must be in
cluded in a word, except in the case of an article or prepo
sition immediately followed by its case. And the anapaest
allowed in proper names must not be divided between two
words.
The following examples may suffice.
1 Pure verse, hephthemimeral casura:
Traxai kvvnyerouvra kai perpoiſºevov
v — v - J - J. : +| J – v- ||
2, Tribrach in first place, spondees in third and fifth,
penthemimeral casura:
âyere row dºpov čh trot' év Tpoig tróda
v v V v --|- : — J. --|-- J --||
3 Tribrach in second place, spondees in first and third,
hephthemimeral casura:
TpvXnpa Tepi Tpuxmpov eiuévnv Xpda
— — v. & J —— v : +| J – v +||
7—2
260
METRE.
4 Tribrach in third place with both caesuras, other feet
pure :
Trématov Aakiruat' déókin' GA/3tois Éxely
• – v 4-|v : J C v-|- – - + ||
5, Tribrach in fourth place with both casuras, and spon
dee in third:
TrøAuv re
bet{w rivěe pakapuotépaw
v – J --|- : — v : & v |v — v-l
6 Tribrach in fifth place, both casuras, spondee in first
and third :
dAAovs
Tupdvvous
autov Švra
Bao'aéa
— — v. 4- — ; – J. : +|J v J C +||
7 Dactyl in the first place, penthemimeral casura:
oºk dpiðuov ćAAws dAA’ wreprarovs q'puytov
— v v v- — ; – v-|v — 0 +||
8 Dactyl in third place, with penthemimeral casura:
Évagoſori vairois Baorºtköv Šk Čwndrov
— — v.-- : v v \,-]—— C, 4-,
9 The same preceded by a monosyllable:
Tof Yap uoxeiv uot &vvarov, eſs Totovs (3porows
— — v.--|- v v v.--— J 1 ||
10 Anapaest in first place, and only quasi-capsura:
qixotipſas traſ' pin ord y” doukos i fleds
v v – Q --|-- ~ & Q |v — 0 + ||
11
Anapaest of proper name in the fifth, with both
C&SuraS :
époi pew ow8és u000s "Avriyovn pºwv
v-v 1 |– : — v : 1 |v v – Q 1 ||
658 In comedy the anapaest was admitted into every
place except the last, and the dactyl might appear in all
the odd feet.
1
Thus we have:
Kardſła, karáða, kardſła, kata/3a, kara/3rigoua,
v v- w v- |v v — v v-|v v-v +||
2 avrás dépa ris untpos autów Yevouévn
— — v.--— v +|— J J J +||
261.
METRE.
659
The comic writers also use an Iambic Tetrameter
Catalectic, which, like the Trochaic Tetrameter, is made up
of two complete dipodiae, followed by a catalectic or incom
plete dipodia. The following scheme exhibits the allowable
substitutions for the Iambus:
I
2
3
4
5
9 –
9 +
9 –
9 + | 9 –
6
9 +
7 8.
9 —
4
vuv J&J v J C v&J U U 9 U&O
— \'V
9J–
- V-J V
Q Q + JC –
— \-) \)
9 O + v v – Q Q 4.
And even the seventh place may be occupied by an ana
paest in the case of a proper name. The following examples
may suffice:
as elkás otiv dateve's yépoviras āvöpas #3n
––v- w — v-|v — v-v —-||
éyévero Mevaximuras rotºv baſópas re IInvexórny &é
v v v J & V | – — v. 4-l— — v. 4-|v v — +||
660 In some of the shorter systems of iambic verse,
the first place is regularly filled by the anapaest. This is
the case in the well-known Anacreontics: such as the
perovvktious troff ºpais, and pakapíčopew ore rétrič.
661
§ IV. Hemiolian Rhythms.
Of the hemiolian rhythms, the oldest and most
common was that which emanated from the cretic, taken as
the representative of a trochaic dipodia. Here the trochee
was considered as the arsis, and the thesis was represented
by a single long syllable, so that the ratio between them was
that of 3 : 2. To this class belong the Paeonic measures,
which are of very frequent occurrence, especially those in
which the first or fourth Papon appears by the side of pure
cretics; this resolution of one of the long syllables is gene
rally confined to the earlier places in the verse, and the true
cretic rhythm is made to appear at the end, where we
sometimes find the trochaic dipodia itself. The following
are examples:
262
METRE.
1 Nearly pure dimeters, terminating in a trochaic dipodia:
oux éðpas pyov ove'
+v—1+v—
du/30Åās, dAAd Xpw
f
f
+v— +v –
-
**N
-
oral yicos Irwuta;
+ vvJ +v — |
xpm trap' evºaſta\ov
4 - – I'— 9 - |
vaov čA
+v—
66vras d6póv r &eſłal.
r
f
+ v — | + v — — ||
2
First paeons terminating in cretic:
pakapíčouev.
piakapi Avropieves
-
*
-
>
-
ºr
-
ore
toº
to
1 v V vſ 1 v v v | + v v 9 |+ 9 - ||
3 First paeons including two resolved metres:
troo p' dp 6s ékdaeore; ríva römov dpa aroré véuetal;
1 v J J & J U vol & J J J J & J J – ||
4 Fourth paeons:
w
w
-
en
r
pera 8é 'yav Jöard
-
ºr
-
w
tokeorvov
*
,
r
a
mqaviore
vº.
& J J – |& 99 – lº. 9 - – |& J U – ||
662 The iambic form of hemiolian rhythm, in which
the ictus falls after a short syllable in the arsis, is generally
called the Bacchius. It is of less frequent occurrence,
because less pleasant to the ear, than the Cretic measure.
1
Tetrameters:
e
-
*
ºn
z
-
º
-
d Taupos 3' towev Kupišew twº dpxdv.
• 4 – 19 4 – 19 4 – 19 + –
q6dgavros 3' en' p'yous ſpottnerioreraſ viv.
- + -l o 4 – 19 4 – v 4 – J 4 - ||
METRE.
2
263
Pentameter:
Tpos &AAav 3’ exative
* + –|*4 –
ovuqopdu Tāorèe Kpetorow.
4 – 19 + - io 4 - ||
6eos
This line (Eurip. Hel. 643) is followed by an anapaestic
line, and that again by a cretic.
§ V. Asynartete and Antispastic Verses.
663 Besides these systems of verses, in which the
metre was regulated by an uniformity of rhythm, the
Greeks used to combine in their poetical compositions
rhythms of different kinds and different origins.
664 If rhythms of a different kind, but of the same
origin, were put together—i.e. if the course of the rhythm
was uninterrupted, though the relation of arsis and thesis
in different parts of the verse was not uniform—the verse
was asymartete (davvaptntos), or “unconnected.” Thus,
combinations of dactyls or choriambi with trochees and
cretics, and of anapaests or ionici with iambi and bacchii,
would form asymartete verses.
665 But if rhythms of a different origin, though of
the same kind, were put together—i.e. if the rhythm went
up and down, although the relation of arsis or thesis was
uniform—the verse was called antispastic (duria wraatikós),
or “inconsistent.”
a.
Asymartetes.
666. Of the asynartete measures by far the most
important are those which exhibit dactyls, or systems of
dactyls, by the side of trochees, or systems of trochees.
These are generally called logaaedic verses. Thus we have
1 Dactylic tetrameter followed by an Ithyphallicus:
oºk 36' Šuws 64AAets draxov Xpda' kāppetal Yap #on.
+ v v || 4 - | + v vſ 1 v v || 1 v | 1 v | 1 – ||
2 Dactylic trimeter followed by a Lecythius:
dAAd u' 6 AugueAris, é, 'raſpe, 3duvata tró00s.
+uv || 4 - 9 || 4 - ||+ 9 – 9|+ v |—||
3 In Soph. Antig. 339–341, we have nine dactyls
followed by an Ithyphallicus.
264
METRE.
4 Trimeter cum anacrusi followed by Ithyphallicus:
'Epagnovićn XaptAae, xpmud to yeaolov.
vl 1 Jul 1 Jul 19 || 1 O | 1 v | 1 J
667 The most systematic combinations of dactyls and
trochees are those found in the Sapphic and Alcaic stanzas,
in the Doric rhythms of Pindar, and in the Glyconic cho
ruses of Sophocles. The student will best learn the latter
by a study of Sophocles and Pindar; it will be sufficient
here to give the laws of the Sapphic and Alcaic verse.
668. The Sapphic stanza presumes that the dactyl is
rhythmically equivalent to the trochaic dipodia; the Alcaic
stanza places the double by the side of the single rhythm,
dipodia for dipodia, and inserts two trochaic dipodiae to
counterbalance the greater weight of the dactyls. That
this must have been the intention of the arranger is clear;
for if the trochaic dipodia in the Sapphic stanza had not
been considered as a rhythmical unit, corresponding to
the dactyl, there would have been a mass of twelve dis
tinct trochees overbalancing five dactyls. But on the other
supposition, there are six dipodiae to five dactyls, just as
in the Alcaic stanza ten trochees, supported in three cases
by anacrusis, are considered rhythmically equivalent to six
dactyls.
669
The schemes of these stanzas are as follows:
Sapphic Stanza.
4 * –v
+ v v || 4 J – 9 (ter)
+ vv | + –
Alcaic Stanza.
<| + 0 + 9 || 4 - 0 | + v v (bis)
* | 1 v 4, 9 + v 1 sº ||
+ 9 U + v v || 1 v 4 sº ||
which are exemplified in the following stanzas :
Sapphic.
paivetaí plot knvos toros 6eoſow
4 - – - || 4 ~ 9 || – 9 - J
265
METRE.
gupew' ºvnp 3rris evdvrids rol
+v — —| 4 - 9| 4 - – -|
toºdvet kal TAdotov dºv paved
+ v — —|+ v v | + 9 — —
-
t
-orac v7rotkovet.
+ v v || 4 trousixd5pov d6avar’ 'Appoètra
+ 9 – 9 || 1 v v | + v — —
waſ Atós, òoAgrãoke, Atoorouat ore
+ 9 – 9 || 1 Jul 1 v — sº
w
º
*
y
sy
3
/
w
pin u' àorator, pin8' oviator. 3duva,
+v— 0 | + vv |
+ 9 — —
|
69
r
Trorvia,
upov.
+ vv | 4 C
Alcaic.
kd;33a*Ae row xetuww', it uév tíðels
– || 4 - || 1 – || 4 U 9 || 4 - 9 ||
trip, iv 8é kipwals oivov dºeiðéws
– | 1 v | 1 – || 1 v v | 4 - 9 ||
péAxpov, autap dup; kápag
v || 4 - || 4 - | 4 - | 4 – ||
p.da0akov duºpitién yváqaMAov.
1 v v | 1 v v || 4 - | + v ||
où Xpm kákoto's 60,0w étutpérnv
– | + v | 1 Q || 4 J J + 9 sº |
Tpokóvogev Yap ou?év do duevo,
v + v 1 v || 1 v v | + 9 sº ||
dparov
– || 4 - || 4 - || 4 - | 1 v ||
oivov čvelkapévois ué0ſorónv.
&
Bükx, ‘pappakov
§'
1 v v | 1 v v || 1 v | + V |
266
METRE.
670 The converse asynartetes, or those made up of the
iambus and anapaest, are of rarer occurrence. They are
found chiefly in the comic writers, to whose use this flip
pant rhythm peculiarly recommends itself. The following
are examples:
xaſp' & péy' dyſpeláyeAws, duºe rais étriflèats
– 4 low — low 4 || -4 || - – 4. |
rms inerépas coq tas kpitris àpiate travrov
– 4 |v 9 - |v - 4 || – | * + | 9 - | 4 |
r
r
r
w
r
º
otpd{3e trapd{3aive kiſkAp, kai ydarptorov aeautów
• 4 || 99 - | * ~ 4 || – – u + | 9 - || 4 ||
*
to 8 drapov draw ré 3' UTépſ3axAów re un trpooreſuav.
~ * + | * * – v J 4 || – – u + | 9 - | 4 ||
671 The student must carefully separate from this
class a metre used by the tragedians, which, although it is
called the Iambelegus, is a compound of the trochaic dipodia
cum amacrusi, and the last penthemimer of the elegiac
verse; thus:
KAétrovoº pºſtovs of peydao Bagºns.
- || 4 - – - || + v v || 4 - 9 || 4 ||
The dactylic trimeter is sometimes acatalectic; thus:
tºppage travčduous ér £300s dyexaſas.
– || 4 - – - || 4 ~~ || 4 - 0 || 4 - ||
b. Antispasts.
672. A true antispastic contrast can only be produced
by placing the descending rhythm of the trochee after the
ascending rhythm of the iambus. The converse combina
tion would give the uniform rhythm of the choriambus.
673 The antispastic measure seems to have been sug
gested by an attempt to reduce the glyconic metre to an
epitrite rhythm, i.e. one in which the thesis was to the
arsis as 3 : 4. The glyconic metre, as we have seen
(above, 646), consisted of a dactylic dipodia preceded by a
basis, which is properly spondaic. If for this spondee is
267
METRE.
substituted an iambus, and for the dipodia a single dactyl,
we get the epitrite rhythm :
9 – || 4 - 9
and this, or a still shorter form with double ictus,
v 4 || 4 was found so admirably adapted for the expression of grief
and wailing, that it was regularly employed by the Greek
tragedians in the Köppo, or “dirges,” which so frequently
occur in the course of a drama.
674
-
The longer form, which was the more common,
was called the Dochmius ; and the shorter, which was called
the Antispastus, was supposed to enter into this; thus:
Antispastus v +|+ v ||
Dochmius
675
v --|- J C ||
The usual substitutions for iambics and trochees
were allowed, but not to such an extent as to destroy the
contrasts of the rhythms. In systems, however, this wail
ing clash of rhythms was varied by an equable flow of
glyconic and other dactylic measures, and not less fre
quently by the trochaic dipodia and cretic.
676 The following stanza will furnish an agreeable
specimen of this rhythm, and its more usual variations:
‘ppeviºv čva ppóvov duaptriuata
• 4 || 4 - – || 0 + | + v V ||
o'reped, bavatoévr'.
v Ú J & J U – ||
*
to
r
kºra wovºru S
w
ºre
koti
+ 9 - || 4 C – ||
6avóvras (3Aérov’res épiquxtove
U + | + v - || - 4 | + 9 - ||
tº uot uðv čvoA/3a 6ovXevpdrºov
– 9 - | + v – |v 4 || 4 ~ – ||
to traf véos vép £ºv påpg
• 4 || 4 J – || 0 + 1 + 9 - ||
268
METRE.
30aves direAuðns
9 & 0 |& v J – ||
épaſs ovee orator ºva'ſłovatais
U + i + 9 - || 0 + | + 9 - ||
677 For the purposes of comic poetry, Eupolis made
a very ingenious combination, of the antispast, and its varie
ties, with the converse, rhythm of the choriambus, pro
ducing an effect not unlike that of the long trochaic line,
by making the cretic at the end answer to the choriambus
in the middle of the line.
The scheme of this metre, which
is called the Eupolideus Polyschematistus, is as follows:
Antispastus Cretic.
Antispastus Choriambus.
-
– || U 1
|- -
1v | 1vJ
u+
Pure
-
-
-
1 0 || 1 v U
- -
|vov
V. V V
| –V
- V
The following lines will exemplify this metre, which is
rarely found pure in the antispastic parts:
d ooſppov re xa, Katarvywv ćpiat' rikovadºrnw
- | + v v – || 4 - – - || 4 - – ||
4
• + 4
3s uéytorov čvra KAéov graia' eis riv Yaorépa
+ 9 — v | 1 u v – || 0 + 4 - | + 9 –
mirrnòels oux àftos &v raûr’ obv July uéupoua,
- + 4 - | + v v – || – 4 + - || 4 - – ||
w
3
-
-
r
w
kat oeuvrvew strio rapevol 3a
f
-
-
/
w
r
r
6.
réAovs rnv vux
--
ÖAmv
r
4 - |+ v J – || J J O + – + 9 –
épubpov ć, drpov trax, roſs traičios twº n yéAws
V & U + v || 1 v J – || 1 v – 9 |+ v — ||
678 The arrangement of varied systems of verses in
strophes and epodes, and other applications of metrical
doctrine, will be best learned by a study of the Greek
poets: but those who have mastered the principles set
forth above, will find no difficulty in any ulterior develope
ments of the theory.
APPENDIX A.
Alphabetical List of Words which change their signification
according to the position of the Accent or Breathing.
(a) Differences of Accent only.
dyww (äyovros), part of dy”;
dyūv (diyújvos), “a contest.”
&6poos, “noiseless;” dºpéos, “ in
crowds.”
alvos, “praise;” alvös, “dread
ful.”
dº." true;”
#x00a, “enmity;” éx0pd, fem. of
éx0pós.
j, “verily;” j, “or.”
6ég, “spectacle;” bed, “god
dess.”
6óAos, “a dome;”,00Xós, “mud.’
&Am6es, “in
tºuás, “mind;” 0ügos, “thyme.”
"Ivöos, the river; 'Ivöös, “an In
dAAa, “other things;” d\\d,
“but.”
diva, voc. of dva: ; diva, prep.
dipa, ergo; apa, num; dipa, impre
catio.
"Apyos, the city; dpyós, “white.”
aúrm, fem. of ouros; atrij, for i
avºri.
dian.”
kóws, “a cable;” kaxºs, adv.
Kelvos, “that;”. keivás (Ion.),
“empty.”
kiip, neut., “the heart;” kiip, fem.,
“death.”
Káutros,
“pride; ”
koutrós,
“proud.”
Báros, “a thorn;” Barós, “pass
AdBm, “a pretext;” Aaſh;, “a
able.”
Mºle.
%.in." Ligurian;” Awyðs,
§ sola.
...; mansiº
6s, “wicked:” uá
-
r
Bagſ}\eta, “a queen;” Baori)\eta,
“a kingdom.”
Bíos, “life;” Biós, “a bow.”
Boorós, “mortal;” Bpáros, “clot
-
.* > *
r
s
o
jºiolº
Hox
;” ſuáxömpos,
ted blood.”
'yaoxos, “a merchant-vessel; ”
yavXós, “a milk-pail.”
ºpos, “people;” &muás, “fat.”
Ata, acc. of Zeis; 6td, prep.
pºpuot, “ten thousand;” uuptow,
“very many.”
váuos, “ law; ” vouds, “a pro
Atós, g. of Zeßs; Öios, “divine.”
oikot, “houses;” olkot, “at home.”
àpios, tamen; buds, simul.
trauðud, “play;” trauðla, “boys.”
trapetas, “a serpent;” trapeuds,
acc. pl. of trapeud.
areíðw, “I persuade ;” are:04,
“persuasion.”
arovmpás, “bad;” tróvmpos, “la
eltre, indic.; eitré, imper.; eitrov,
indic.; eitróv, imper. and part.
*KTAéw, “I sail out;” &KrAew,
neut. pl. of ékirAews.
&\dogwu, compar.; Maoraiov, part.
of éAaororów.
-
&\eós, “kitchen-table;” &\eos,
“compassion.”
vince.”
borious.”
éčaipei, “he lifts up;” {{aipei,
#: takes away.”
ëpueós, “wild fig-tree;” epiveos,
“woolly.”
«
aróros, potus ; trotés, potulen
tus.
- - -
ortya, sile; oriya, silenter.
axaqiſ, “a pit;” ordiq'm, “a boat.”
APPENDIX A.
270
orkóAtov, “a drinking-song;" orko
Auðv, “crooked.”
aröv, prep. ; orov, acc. of ords.
“tribute;”
*†,
ful.”
ſpopós, “fruit
qºs, neut, “light;" qugs, m. “a
Tpoxás, “a wheel;” rpóxos, “a
man.”
lºvy”, “soul;” Wrixºn, pl. of lºw
circular course.”
qíAmrºſs, “a lover;” pi\itns, “a
Xos.
duos, “shoulder;” duás, “cruel.”
thief.”
(b) Differences of Breathing, or of Breathing and Accent.
dyvás, “chaste;” ſyvos, viter; .
aiutov, “bloody;" aluav, “skil
-
**
Waav, “they sent;” morav, “they
were.”
iāori, “they send;” tagi, “they
d\éu, “to collect;” d\éu, “to
will go.”
666s, f. “a way;” 3öös, m. “a
ind.”
elpya', “to shut in;"'elp yºu, “to
shut out.”
eſs, “one;” slº, “into.”
££, “six ;” &#, “out.”
jka, l aor. of lnut ; ºrca, “gently.”
j\os, “a nail;” j\ós, “stupid.”
threshold.”
olos, qualis; olos, solus.
&pos, m. “a boundary;” apos, n.,
“a mountain.”
-
où, “where;” ov, “not.”
APPENDIX
B.
Tables of Words for Practice in Declension, and for the
commencement of a Vocabulary.
I.
-a Declension.
(a) Like rautas.
Bopéas, “the north-wind.”
olké-rms, “a servant.
Mi'6as, Midas.
weavtas, “a youth.”
Tountris, “a poet.”
Troxtºrms, “a citizen.”
6putflothipas, G.-a, “a bird-catch
*>
(b) Like kpit is.
dxpodrus, “a listener.”
doºrms, “a ploughman.”
IIéparis, “a Persian.”
trpoqºrns, “a prophet.”
oroqiatifs, “a sophist.”
Texvirus, “an artisan.”
ūtokpitifs, “an actor.”
(c) Like uoda'a.
deX\a, “a storm” (18 g).
dikavba, “a thorn” (18 f).
k\érrms, “a thief.”
Mathiris, “a scholar.”
vaſtns, “a sailor.”
&uuMAa, “a contest.”
vouctºrms, “a law-giver."
yAajora'a, “a tongue.”
APPENDIX
36%a, “an opinion.”
§xiðva, “a viper” (165).
271
B.
(f) Like pixta.
airta, “a cause.”
6axa.orora, “the sea.”
Aué\torola, “a bee.”
Mepipava, “a care” (165).
Bía, “strength.”
ékkAmoria, “an assembly.”
oikia, “a house.”
6íča, “a root” (18, b, f).
XAaïva, “a cloak” (165).
(g) Like d'Affleið.
ord Joã.
irº. d)
*. Like
...}
dyvid, “a street.”
dipovpa, “a field.”
yala, “the earth.”
eva èpeta, “piety.”
ūyiela, “health.”
p
yéqūpa, “a bridge.”
uolpa, “a portion.”
orqoalpa, “a ball.”
(e) Like alo'Xpá'.
dyopat, “a market.”
riuépa, “a day.”
tºpa, “a door.”
Aaºpa, “a narrow lane.”
TrAevpd, “a side.”
Xºpa, “a country.”
dipa, “time,” or “season.”
II.
(h) Like ovkii and tipiſ.
ya)\ft, “a weasel.”
yń, “the earth.”
kepa)\ri. “a head.”
köpm, “a maiden.”
Aörn, “grief.”
TrúXm, “a gate.”
iſMn, “a wood.”
w).évn, “an elbow.”
-o Declension.
Feminines in -os.
(l) Trees and Plants.
r; Big\os or Bü8Aos, “the papy
rus.”
* @nyós, “the beech.”
jkókkos, “the scarlet oak.”
Also:
1j BigAos, ri ééXºros, “the book.”
ni Bjorgos, “fine linen.”
1jöokós, “the beam.”
mi jā860s, “the rod.”
(2) Stones and Earths.
(3) Receptacles.
1j kugorós, “the ark.”
1j Kapòotros, “the kneading
trough.”
ti trčexos, “the bathing-tub.”
mi Amvás, “the wine-press.”
jri &ratos,
Tpéxovs,“the
“thepinnace.”
pitcher.
y
-
mi Aibos, “the precious stone” (but
ii arápivos, “the jug.”
mi kapivos, “the stove.”
(4) . Roads or Ways.
ni 636s and kéAsubos, “road.”
& Aitos, “the stone,” in gene
ô, joinos, “path.”
ral).
widtpatros and rotgos, “footpath.”
ri taqpos and karstos, “trench.”
(5) Adjectives in ellipse.
Xéporos, “dry-land,”
#Telpos, “continuous-land,”
wijoyos, “floating-land,”
midpyiXos, “clay.”
ri i\ekTpos (also rô j\ektpov, )
“amber.”
1j kpúaraX\os, “crystal” (but 6
kpúataNAos, “ice”).
1j Jrduplos, “sand.”
jūrāqos, “the pebble.”
mi ja}\os, “glass.”
ri arto66s, “ashes.”
jtxiv6os, “the tile.”
t
ëpmuos, “desert-land.”
képkos, sc. oupſ (whence kep ow
pos), “a tail.”
yvä0os (referring to yévus), “the
-
y
jaw-bone.’
Masculines and Neuters in -os, -ov.
&0\os, “a combat.”
&0\ov, “the prize of a combat.”
dpyvpos, “silver.”
dip'yūptov, “a piece of silver.”
tortos, “a mast.”
to rvov, “a sail.”
272
APPENDIX B.
kaorort repos, “tin.”
uáAvBôos, “lead.”
XaXxós, “copper,” or “bronze.”
XaXxtov, “a copper coin or uten
Trétpos, “a piece of rock,” (but
Trérpa, “a rock”).
6óðov, “a rose.”
oričmpos, “iron.”
sil.”
Xpworós, “gold.”
xopos, sc. dypos, “a field,” (but
xuipa, sc, yn, “a district”).
III. Consonant Declension'.
dAyos, “grief.”
d'Aoros, “a grove.”
Neuters in -os, like teixos.
képôos, “gain.”
kptiros, “strength.”
div6os, “a flower.”
Nodos, “renown.”
dxtos, “a weight.”
Méyetos, “greatness.”
ué\os, “a member,” or “a song.”
uévos, “force.”
uñxos, “length.”
vépos, “a cloud.”
Babos, “ depth. > *
€vos, “a family.”
*Yxos, “a spear.”
&buos, “a nation.”
&bos, “custom.”
j60s, “habit.”
{{qos, “a sword.”
Öpos, “a mountain.”
6épos, “summer.”
ô£os, “vinegar.”
"puxos, “cold.”
6pdoros, “boldness.”
ixvos, “footstep.”
Masculines and
-
* 30 wants, “power.”
* uáðmous, “learning."
|
Feminines in -ts, like tróAus.
ri čurts, “vision.”
-
º
6 mooris, “the husband.”
t
-
ô, judvris, “the seer.”
i tróais, “the drinking.”
ri pāorts, “nature.”
In -vs, G. -vos (186).
6 uds, “the mouse.”
& Bórpus, “bunch of grapes.”
ºf Öq'oùs, “the eye-brow.”
i opus, “the oak.”
ſixéAvs, “the tortoise.”
6 ixbûs, “the fish.”
6 Öqus, “the snake.”
1 There are sufficient examples of the other Nouns of this Declension in the
Grammar itself.
THE
END.
CAM BRIDGE: Printed at the University Press.
By the same Author.
I
THE THEATRE OF THE GREEKS, with a New Intro
duction and other Alterations. Fifth Edition.
II.
THE NEW CRATYLUS; or Contributions towards a more
accurate knowledge of the Greek Language.
Second Edition,
enlarged and improved. (Preparing for Publication.)
III.
IIINAAPOY TA 20ZOMENA: Pindar's Epinician or Trium
phal Odes; together with the Fragments of his lost Compositions,
revised and explained.
IV.
WARRONIANUS; a Critical and Historical Introduction to
the Philological Study of the Latin Language.
V.
CONSTRUCTIONIS GRAECAE PRAECEPTA.
WI.
THE ANTIGONE OF SOPHOCLES in Greek and English,
with an Introduction and Notes.
VII.
AESCHYLI EUMENIDES (a Corrected Text).
VIII.
MASKIL LE-SOPHER; or the Principles and Processes of
Classical Philology applied to the Analysis of the Hebrew Lan
guage.
D. G. G.
18
CL A ss IC AL TEXTs,
CAREFULLY REVISED FROM THE BEST EDITIONS.
CICERO DE SENECTUTE.
CICERO DE AMICITIA.
1s.
1s.
CICERO PRO PLANCIO.
CICERO PRO MILONE
1s.
1s.
CICERO PRO MURAENA.
1s.
CICERO DE OFFICIIS. 2s.
CICERONIS ORATIO PHILIPPICA SECUNDA.
TACITI GERMANIA.
TACITI AGRICOLA.
ls.
EXCERPTA EX TACITI ANNALIBUS.
fessor PILLANs.
Edited by Pro
2s. 6d.
CÆSAR DE BELLO GALLICO.
TERENTII ANDRIA.
HORATII SATIRAE.
I. to IV.
ls.
6d.
1s.
1s.
VIRGILII GEORGICA.
OVIDII FASTI.
ls.
1s.
1s. 6d.
2s.
PLATONIS PHAEDO.
2s.
PLATONIS MENEXENUS.
ÆSCHYLI EUMENIDES.
EURIPIDIS BACCHÆ.
1g.
Is.
ls.
SOPHOCLIS OEDIPUS TYRANNUS, with Notes. 2s. 6d.
SOPHOCLIS PHILOCTETES, witii NotEs. 2s.
EXCERPTA EX ARRIANO.
2s. 6d.
Other Works are in preparation.
Educational Books
Published by
John W. Parker, West Strand, London.
The Student's Manual of Ancient History. Fourth
Edition. By W. C. Taylor, LL.D. Fourth Edition. 10s. 6d.
The Student's Manual of Modern History. By the
same Author.
Fourth Edition.
10s. 6d.
History of the Christian Church. By Professor Bur
ton. Sixth Edition, 6s. 6d.
College Lectures on Christian Antiquities, and the
Ritual of the English Church.
By the Rev. W. Bates, M.A.,
Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge. Post Octavo, 9s.
College Lectures on Ecclesiastical History. By the
same Author. Second Edition, 6s. 6d.
A History of the English Reformation. By F. C.
Massingberd, M.A., Rector of South Ormsby. A New Edition,
revised and Enlarged, 6s.
The History of the Reformation of the Church of
England, abridged from the larger History by Bishop Burnet.
Edited with Additions and Corrections by the Rev. Professor
Corrie.
8vo. 10s. 6d.
A Manual of Christian Antiquities; an Account of
the Constitution, Ministers, Worship, Discipline, and Customs
of the Early Church. By the Rev. J. E. Riddle, M.A. Second
Edition, 18s.
Paley's Evidences Epitomized, By J. W. Smith, B.C.L.
Second Edition, with Examination Questions. 3s.
Examination Questions and Answers, from Burnet
on the Thirty-Nine Articles. New Edition, 1s. 6d.
Examination Questions and Answers on Butler's Ana
logy. By the Rev. Sir G. W. Craufurd, Bart., M.A. New Edi
tion, 1s. 6d.
-
A Manual of Ancient Geography; with the Ancient
and Modern Names of Places marked with their proper Quan
tities. By the Rev. W. Hildyard, M.A. Third Edition, 2s. 6d.
Bible Maps; an Historical and Descriptive Atlas of
Scripture Geography, wherein...the Ancient Authorities are
verified and corrected to the present time. By William Hughes,
F.R.G.S. Cloth, and the Maps coloured, 7s.6d.
EDUCATIONAL BOOKS
Outline Scripture Maps, by J. R. Major, M.A.
With Key, 3s.
Readings in Poetry. Ninth Edition, 4s. 6d.
Readings in English Prose Literature.
New Edi
tion, 4s. 6d.
Readings in Biography. Fifth Edition, 4s. 6d.
Readings in Science. Fourth Edition, 58.
Bible Biography; a Series of Connected Histories of
the Principal Characters mentioned in the Old and New Testa
ments. By E. Farr. Second Edition, 4s.
Bible Narrative Chronologically Arranged, in the
words of the Authorized Version; forming a Consecutive His
tory from the Creation to the Termination of the Jewish Polity.
By Miss R. M. Zornlin. Third Edition, with Maps. 7s.
Progressive Exercises for advanced Students in Latin
Composition. Prepared for the use of King's College, by the
Rev. H. Davis. 3s.6d.
Progressive Exercises in Latin Lyrics. By the Rev.
J. Edwards. 3s.
Progressive Exercises in Latin Elegiacs and Heroics.
By the same. 3s.
The Aulularia of Plautus, with Notes.
By J.
Hildyard, B.D., Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge. 7s.6d.
The Menaechmei of Plautus, with a Glossary and
Notes, by the same Editor. New Edition, 7s.6d.
C. Cornelii Taciti Opera et Codices Antiquissimos
exacta et emendata, Commentario Critico. Edidit Franciscus
Ritter, Professor Bonnensis.
A New Edition of the Works of Tacitus, in Four
Volumes, 8vo. The first two, containing the whole of the
Annals, are now ready. The other two will appear in the
course of the year.
The
º Greek and English Testament;
the
Greek and English Texts in parallel columns in the same page,
with Marginal References. 8s. 6d.
4
S.
Major. Excerpta ex Herodoto, with
English Notes.
-
Major's Excerpta
Cyropaedia;
with
a Vocabulary,
and §.ex3s.Xenophontis
6d. p
yrop
2
PUBLISHED BY JOHN W. PARKER.
Xenophon's Anabasis.
Dr. Hickie.
I. and II. With Notes, by
3s. 6d.
Anthon's Homer's Iliad : I. to III. With English
Notes. Edited by Dr. Major. Stongly bound. 6s.
Shrewsbury Greek Verses. Second Edition, revised.
8s.
Greek Text of the Acts of the Apostles, with English
Notes. By H. Robinson, D.D. 8s.
A Commentary on the Book of the Acts of the
Apostles, By the Rev. W. Gilson Humphry, M.A., Fellow of
Trinity College, Cambridge; Examining Chaplain to the Bishop
of London.
8vo. 7s.
Select Private Orations of Demosthenes, with English
Notes. By the Rev. T. C. Penrose, M.A., Head Master of
Sherborne School.
5s.
Frogs of Aristophanes, with English Notes. By Rev.
H. P. Cookesley. 7s.
Dahlmann's Life of Herodotus drawn out from his
Book. Translated, with Notes, by G. W. Cox, M.A., Esquire
Bedell, Oxford.
Post 8vo. 5s.
A Life of Aristotle, including a Critical Discussion of
some Questions of Literary History connected with his Works.
By the Rev. J. W. Blakesley, M.A., late Fellow and Tutor of
Trinity College, Cambridge. 8s. 6d.
Schleiermacher's Introductions to the Dialogues of
Plato; translated by the Rev. W. Dobson, M.A., Fellow of
Trinity College, Cambridge. 12s. 6d.
The Fables of Babrius, from the newly-discovered
Manuscript, together with the Fragments of the lost Fables.
Edited by George Cornewall Lewis, Esq., M.A., late Student of
Christ
§.
Post Octavo, 5s. 6d.
Pindar's Epinician Odes, and the Fragments of his
Lost Compositions, revised and explained; with copious Notes
and Indices.
By the Rev. J. W. Donaldson, B.D., Head
Nºte:
of King Edward's School, Bury St Edmund's.
16s.
Octavo,
Theocritus. Codicum Manuscriptorum Ope Recen
suit et Emendavit Christophorus Wordsworth, S.T.P., nuper
Scholae Harroviensis Magister. 8vo. 13s.6d.
The Iphigenia in Aulis of Euripides.
Edition, with English Notes.
Cambridge
8vo. 6s.
The Iphigenia in Tauris of Euripides. Cambridge
Edition, with English Notes.
8vo. 5s.
Boeckh's Public Economy of Athens. Translated by
G. C. Lewis, A.M., late Student of Christ Church. 8vo. 18s.
EDUCATIONAL BOOKS
The Antigone of Sophocles, in Greek and English,
with Critical and explanatory Notes. By J. W. Donaldson, B.D.,
Head Master of King Edward the Sixth's School, Bury St.
Edmund's.
8vo.
9s.
The Agamemnon of AEschylus, the Greek Text, with
a Translation into English Verse, and Notes, Critical and Ex
planatory. By John Conington, B.A., Fellow of University
College, Oxford.
7s.6d.
The Phaedrus, Lysis, and Protagoras of Plato, lite
rally translated from the Greek. By a Graduate of the Univer
sity of Cambridge. 4s. 6d.
Characteristics of the Greek Philosophers, Socrates
and Plato. By Rev. J. P. Potter, A.M. 4s. 6d.
Becker's Gallus; or, Roman Scenes of the Time of
Augustus, with Notes and Excursus illustrative of the Manners
and Customs of the Romans. Translated by the Rev. F. Met
calfe, M.A. Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Post 8vo. with
Illustrations, 12s.
-
Becker's Charicles; or, Illustrations of the Private
Life of the Ancient Greeks. Translated by the Rev. F. Met
calfe, M.A.
Post 8vo. with Illustrations, 12s.
Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand Greeks;
a Geographical and Descriptive Account of the Expedition of
Cyrus and of the Retreat of the Ten Thousand, as related
Xenophon. By W. F. Ainsworth, F.G.S., Surgeon to the
uphrates Expedition. 7s.6d.
º
GERMAN.
By Professor Bernay's, of King's College, London.
Compendious Grammar. Sixth Edition, 5s.
Exercises. Eighth Edition, 5s. 6d.
Examples. Fifth Edition, 3s.
Reader. Fourth Edition, 5s.
Historical Anthology. Second Edition, 5s.
Poetry for Beginners. 4s.
Poetical Anthology. Fourth Edition, 7s.
，
This book should be returned to
the Library on or before the last date
stamped below.
A fine of five cents a day is incurred
by retaining it beyond the specified
time.
-
Please return promptly.
DuF FEB-1-1 50
|